Optimization of static magnetic field homogeneity in the human and animal brain in vivo
Introduction
Samples studied with conventional magnetic resonance (MR) techniques are subjected to a polarizing static magnetic field . Ideally, this magnetic field is assumed to be spatially homogeneous over the sample volume. However, the presence of any object of finite magnetic susceptibility (i.e. a sample) will inevitably perturb this magnetic field and provide the Larmor frequencies of MR-sensitive spins with an unwanted spatial dependence. These susceptibility-induced B0 perturbations, which are a fundamental result of Maxwell’s electromagnetic field theory, scale roughly linearly in magnitude with applied B0 field strengths.
B0 inhomogeneity degrades the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of all MR measurements. While Hahn spin-echoes can be used to refocus B0 inhomogeneity at one instantaneous temporal point, the remainder of a spin-echo is tempered by B0 inhomogeneity-induced signal relaxation (commonly referred to as ). Furthermore, many techniques cannot utilize spin-echo procedures, and are thus susceptible to the full evolution of relaxation.
The spatial variation of Larmor frequencies within a spectroscopic voxel will broaden and distort spectral lineshapes. Standard spectroscopic techniques such as frequency-selective resonance suppression and spectral editing are easily degraded by these effects.
MR images are susceptible to the same B0-induced SNR deterioration as spectroscopic acquisitions. Additionally, they can further suffer from spatial distortion in regions of high B0 inhomogeneity. In particular, commonly utilized rapid imaging strategies such as steady-state free precession (SSFP), spiral, and echo-planar imaging (EPI) are often compromised by B0 inhomogeneity.
Broadly speaking, B0 shimming refers to the optimized application of external magnetic fields to compensate unwanted inhomogeneity of the B0 magnetic field. For applications that require high-degrees of B0 homogeneity, fine-tuned shimming has historically been accomplished using sets of dedicated electromagnets. These electromagnet coils, or ‘active shims’, can be adjusted on a subject-specific basis.
This review is focused on high-field B0 shimming of the brain, specifically within small rodents and humans. B0 field perturbations within the brain are particularly prominent near the air-tissue interfaces at the sinus and auditory cavities. The recent increases of B0 field strengths used in both clinical and research MR systems necessitates maximal utility of conventional shim technology. For some applications, this conventional technology cannot adequately homogenize designated shim volumes (particularly larger volumes). Therefore, along with the development of automated optimization protocols for conventional active shim systems, recent investigations have explored alternative approaches to shim hardware design.
A theoretical treatment of B0 inhomogeneity and its effects on magnetic resonance acquisitions are presented in the next section. Section 3 then presents the techniques utilized in MR-based mapping of static magnetic fields, which is now a standard tool in automated shimming methods. The hardware and methods utilized in room-temperature shimming (also commonly referred to as ‘active’ shimming) are developed in Section 4. The challenges of optimizing B0 homogeneity over extended volumes are introduced in Section 5, followed by a discussion of the methods and capabilities of Dynamic Shim Updating (DSU) of room-temperature shims. Finally, recent novel approaches to shimming that deviate from any previous technological methodologies, such as local active shimming and subject-specific passive shimming, are presented.
Section snippets
Theory
An in vivo MR system will typically have RMS B0 homogeneity of up to only about 50 parts-per-million (ppm) of the static magnetic field strength (≈6 kHz at 3T) over manufacturer-defined diameter spherical volumes (DSVs). Typical DSV diameters are roughly 45 cm for human systems and 5–6 cm for small animal systems. This inherent magnetic field inhomogeneity arises from a number of factors. First, it is extremely difficult to generate homogeneous current density distributions in superconducting
Principles
The basic principle of MRI-based B0 field mapping relies upon quadrature (complex) detection of the MR signal. Quadrature detection provides information on the angular phase (ϕ) of measured transverse magnetization. The phase of the measured magnetization advances with echo-time TE, according towhere ϕ0 is the initial phase of the magnetization imparted by RF excitation and ω is related to the local magnetic field offset by,Here, B0 is the applied static magnetic field, ω
Room temperature (RT) shimming
The -component of the static magnetic field in an MR experiment, , is given bywhere the superimposed contributions represent the ideal homogeneous superconducting-electromagnet field (B0), imperfections in this field (δB0), the room-temperature (RT) shim field (BRTS), the passive shim field (BPS), and the sample-induced field (BS). The object of shimming is to generate a pure B0 field, and therefore satisfy the condition
Shimming over extended volumes
The methods presented in the previous section can sufficiently homogenize the B0 distribution over small volumes and are often adequate for single-voxel spectroscopy applications. However, for many applications the aforementioned methods and hardware cannot adequately homogenize extended volumes across the whole brain.
Fig. 8 shows the effects of increasing orders of shim inclusion in the whole-brain least-squares optimization of B0 field homogeneity in the human brain at 3T. It is clear from
Conclusion
B0 shimming remains an active field of technological development. Sections 2 Theory, 3 Magnetic field mapping, 4 Room temperature (RT) shimming have highlighted some of the primary considerations involved in such development. Utilizing the founding principles of magnetostatic physics, shim coil design, magnetic field mapping, and automated shim optimization, Section 5 presented the remaining challenges posed by B0 shimming of the brain. Advanced shim optimization methods addressing these
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Jason Hsu, Dr. Gary Glover, Dr. Peter Jezzard, Dr. Peter van Gelderen, Dr. Michael Poole, and Dr. Richard Bowtell for contributing their results to this review. Further gratitude goes to Terence Nixon, Scott McIntyre, Peter Brown and Dr. Laura Sacolick for their assistance in developing and implementing aspects of the technology presented in this review. Previously unpublished results contained in this review were funded by NIH Grants R21-CA118503 and
Glossary
- Active shimming
- B0 shimming whereby sets of electromagnetic coils are used to shim in a subject-specific fashion
- Diamagnetic materials
- Materials that induce magnetic fields which oppose applied fields (negative magnetic susceptibility)
- DSU: dynamic shim updating
- Technique whereby RT shims are updated during an MR acquisition. Shims can be dynamically updated for specific spatial regions (slices or voxels) or in time (respiration, movement)
- EPI: echo-planar imaging
- Magnetic resonance imaging technique
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