Abstract
The majority of definitions of life and evolution include the notion that part of an organism has to be copied to its offspring and that this includes some form of coded information. This article presents the thesis that this conception is too restrictive and that evolution can occur in systems in which there is no copy of information between generations. For that purpose, this article introduces a new set of concepts and a theoretical framework that is designed to be equally applicable to the study of the evolution of biological and nonbiological systems. In contrast to some theoretical approaches in evolution, like neo-Darwinism, the approach presented here is not focused on the transmission and change of hereditary information that can be copied (like in the case of DNA). Instead, multiple mechanisms by which a system can generate offspring (with and without copying) and by which information in it affects the structure and evolution of its offspring are considered. The first part of this article describes in detail these new concepts. The second part of this article discusses how these concepts are directly applicable to the diversity of systems that can evolve. The third part introduces hypotheses concerning (1) how different mechanisms of generation and inheritance can arise from each other during evolution, and (2) how the existence of several inheritance mechanisms in an organism can affect its evolution.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adami C, Brown CT (1994) Evolutionary learning in the 2D artificial life systems avida. In: Brooks R, Maes P (eds) Artificial life IV (Proceedings of the fourth international workshop on the synthesis and simulation of living systems). MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 377–381
Ashkenasy G, Jagasia R, Yadav M, Ghadiri MR (2004) Design of a directed molecular network. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:10872–10877. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402674101
Bedau MA, McCaskill JS, Packard NH, Rasmussen S, Adami C, Green DG et al (2000) Open problems in artificial life. Artif Life 6:363–376. doi:10.1162/106454600300103683
Bohler C, Nielsen PE, Orgel LE (1995) Template switching between PNA and RNA oligonucleotides. Nature 376:578–581. doi:10.1038/376578a0
Carlborg S, Haley CS (2004) Epistasis: too often neglected in complex trait studies? Nat Rev Genet 5:618–625. doi:10.1038/nrg1407
Chen X, Li N, Ellington AD (2007) Ribozyme catalysis of metabolism in the RNA world. Chem Biodivers 4:633–655. doi:10.1002/cbdv.200790055
Chow M, Rubin H (2000) Clonal selection versus genetic instability as the driving force in neoplastic transformation. Cancer Res 60:6510–6518
Cleland CE, Chyba CF (2002) Defining ‘life’. Orig Life Evol Biosph 32:387–393. doi:10.1023/A:1020503324273
Darnell JE, Doolittle WF (1986) Speculations on the early course of evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83:1271–1275. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.5.1271
Dawkins R (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Deacon TW (2006) Reciprocal linkage between self-organizing processes is sufficient for self-reproduction and evolvability. Biol Theory 1(2):136–149. doi:10.1162/biot.2006.1.2.136
Doolittle WF, Sapienza C (1980) Selfish genes, the phenotype paradigm and genome evolution. Nature 284:601–603. doi:10.1038/284601a0
Duboule D, Wilkins AS (1998) The evolution of ‘bricolage’. Trends Genet 14:54–59. doi:10.1016/S0168-9525(97)01358-9
Dyson F (1985) Origins of life. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Fernando C, Santos M, Szathmáry E (2005) Evolutionary potential and requirements for minimal protocells. Top Curr Chem 259:167–211. doi:10.1007/tcc001
Fox TD (1987) Natural variation in the genetic code. Annu Rev Genet 21:67–91
Gánti T (2003) The principles of life. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Gilbert W (1986) Origin of life: the RNA world. Nature 3:618–620. doi:10.1038/319618a0
Griesemer J (2000a) The units of evolutionary transition. Selection 1:67–80. doi:10.1556/Select.1.2000.1-3.7
Griesemer J (2000b) Development, culture and the units of inheritance. Philos Sci (Proc) 67:S348–S368
Gunge N (1986) Linear DNA killer plasmids from the yeast Kluyveromyces. Yeast 2:153–162. doi:10.1002/yea.320020303
Hunding A, Kepes F, Lancet D (2006) Compositional complementarity and prebiotic ecology in the origin of life. Bioessays 28:399–412. doi:10.1002/bies.20389
Hurst GD, Werren JH (2001) The role of selfish genetic elements in eukaryotic evolution. Nat Rev Genet 2:597–606. doi:10.1038/35084545
Huttenhofer A, Schattner P (2006) The principles of guiding by RNA: chimeric RNA-protein enzymes. Nat Rev Genet 7:475–482. doi:10.1038/nrg1855
Jablonka E (1994) Inheritance systems and the evolution of new levels of individuality. J Theor Biol 170:301–309. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1994.1191
Jablonka E (2002) Information: its interpretation, its inheritance, and its sharing. Philos Sci 69:578–604. doi:10.1086/344621
Jablonka E, Lamb MJ (2005) Evolution in four dimensions: genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and symbolic variation in the history of life of life. MIT Press, Cambridge
Kidwell MG, Lisch G (2001) Perspective: transposable elements, parasitic DNA, and genome evolution. Evolution 55:1–24
Lee DH, Severin K, Yokobayashi Y, Ghadiri MR (1997) Emergence of symbiosis in peptide self-replication through a hypercyclic network. Nature 390:591–594. doi:10.1038/36554
Madigan MT, Martinko JM (2005) Brock biology of microorganisms. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco
Maynard Smith J, Szathmáry E (1995) The major transitions in evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Monnard PA (2007) Question 5: does the RNA-world still retain its appeal after 40 years of research? Orig Life Evol Biosph 37:387–390. doi:10.1007/s11084-007-9099-9
Morowitz H (1992) Beginnings of cellular life. Yale University Press, New Haven
Nachman MW, Crowell SL (2000) Estimate of the mutation rate per nucleotide in humans. Genetics 156:297–304
Oyama S (2000) The ontogeny of information: developmental systems and evolution, 2nd edn. Duke University Press, Durham
Palyi G, Zucci C, Caglioti L (2002) Fundamentals of life. Elsevier, Paris
Peterkofsky B (1991) Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am J Clin Nutr 54:1135S–1140S
Pitsch S, Krishnamurthy R, Bolli M, Wendeborn S, Holzner A, Minton M, Lesueur C, Schkinvogt I, Jaun B, Eschenmoser A (1995) Pyranosyl-RNA (‘p-RNA’): base-pairing selectivity and potential to replicate. Helv Chim Acta 78:1621–l635
Prigogine I, Nicolis G (1977) Self-organization in non-equilibrium systems: from dissipative structures to order through fluctuations. Wiley, New York
Ray TS (1991) An approach to the synthesis of life. In: Farmer DJ, Langton C, Rasmussen S, Taylor C (eds) Artificial life II. Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, pp 371–408
Riedl R (1978) Order in living organisms: a systems analysis of evolution. Wiley, New York
Roth G, Wake D (2001) Evolution and devolution: the case of bolitoglossine salamanders. In: Roth G, Wullimann F (eds) Brain evolution and cognition. Wiley, New York
Rubin H (1992) Adaptive evolution of degrees and kinds of neoplastic transformation in cell-culture. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:977–981. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.3.977
Ruiz-Mirazo K, Pereto J, Moreno A (2004) A universal definition of life: autonomy and open-ended evolution. Orig Life Evol Biosph 34:323–346. doi:10.1023/B:ORIG.0000016440.53346.dc
Salazar Ciudad I (2006) Developmental constraints vs variational properties: how pattern formation can help to understand evolution and development. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 306:107–125
Salazar-Ciudad I, Jernvall J (2004) How different types of pattern formation mechanisms affect the evolution of form and development. Evol Dev 6:6–16. doi:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2004.04002.x
Salazar-Ciudad I, Jernvall J (2005) Graduality and innovation in the evolution of complex phenotypes: insights from development. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 304:619–631
Salazar-Ciudad I, García-Fernandez J, Solé RV (2000) Gene networks capable of pattern formation: from induction to reaction-diffusion. J Theor Biol 205:587–603. doi:10.1006/jtbi.2000.2092
Salazar-Ciudad I, Newman SA, Solé RV (2001) Phenotypic and dynamical transitions in model genetic networks. I. Emergence of patterns and genotype–phenotype relationships. Evol Dev 3:84–94. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.003002084.x
Santos M, Zintzaras E, Szathmáry E (2003) Origin of sex revisited. Orig Life Evol Biosph 33:405–432. doi:10.1023/A:1025759024888
Schrödinger E (1944) What is life? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Segre D, Ben-Eli D, Deamer DW, Lancet D (2001) The lipid world. Orig Life Evol Biosph 1:19–145
Semon R (1921) The mneme. George Allen & Unwin, London
Shannon CE (1948) A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Syst Tech J 27:623–656
Sievers D, von Kiedrowski G (1994) Self-replication of complementary nucleotide-based oligomers. Nature 369:221–224. doi:10.1038/369221a0
Sperber D (1996) Explaining culture: a naturalistic approach. Blackwell, Oxford
Szathmáry E (2006) The origin of replicators and reproducers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1761–1776. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1912
Terfort A, von Kiedrowski G (1992) Self-replication by condensation of I-aminobenzamidines and 2-formylphenoxyacetic acids. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 31:654–656. doi:10.1002/anie.199206541
Von Kiedrowski G (1986) A self-replicating hexadeoxynucleotide. Angew Chem fnf Ed Engl 25:932–934
Wimsatt W, Schank C (1986) Generative entrenchment and evolution. PSA 1986: proceedings of the 1986 biennial meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol 2: symposia and invited papers. Philosophy of Science Association, East Lansing, pp 33–60
West-Eberhard MJ (2003) Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Wintner EA, Rebek J Jr (1996) Autocatalysis and the generation of self-replicating systems. Acta Chim Scand 50:469–485. doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.50-0469
Wolpert DH, Macready WG (1997) No free lunch theorems for optimization. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 1:67. doi:10.1109/4235.585893
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Stuart Newman and Eva Jablonka for reading the manuscript and providing relevant references, Tuomas Pernu for reading the manuscript, The Juselius Foundation for funding and the Spanish government for a RyC grant.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Salazar-Ciudad, I. Evolution in biological and nonbiological systems under different mechanisms of generation and inheritance. Theory Biosci. 127, 343–358 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12064-008-0052-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12064-008-0052-x