Most of the previous studies on restrained steel beam behaviour in fire conditions have neglected the creep effect due to the lack of applicable creep models. A finite element model (FEM) is determined in this study to investigate fire resistance and the behaviour of restrained high-strength (RHS) Q690 steel beams in fire considering the high-temperature Fields & Fields creep model. A comparison of

Molten marks identified at a fire site can aid in determining the cause of a fire. Quantitative analysis of such molten marks has not yet been reported, despite several identification methods for molten marks being proposed based on optical micrographs. Herein, we propose a new methodology to establish the quantitative microstructure parameters of the molten marks using electron backscatter diffraction

In this paper, we proposed a semantic fire image segmentation method using a convolutional neural network. The simple but powerful method proposed is middle skip connection achieved through the residual network, which is widely used in image-based deep learning. To enhance the middle skip connection, we constructed a pair of convolution layers, hereafter referred to as input convolution and output

Scaling laws based on the conservation of the Froude number have been widely used in both fire research and fire engineering design in tunnels. However, the applicability of scaling laws in tunnel fires with natural ventilation has not been systematically verified. In order to verify the scaling laws for tunnel fires with natural ventilation, two model tunnels were tested: Tunnel-L, measuring 20 m

Fire protection measures are taken to prevent fires or to keep the resulting damage as low as possible. The statistical effectiveness of fire protection measures can be derived from a large number of fires that have already occurred. With the research paper presented here, such proof of effectiveness is rendered for certain specific fire protection measures, such as installed fire detection and fire

Smoke, as a prominent character of combustion, is widely regarded as a signal of forest fire. Existing in a video-based smoke root detection methods on rely the distance between smoke and the lens, which is one of the most challenging parts. In relatively close distances, the dynamic region extraction method not only presents simplicity but also provides clear outlines and shapes, which is good for

Approximately one billion people across the globe are living in informal settlements with a large potential fire risk. Due to the high dwelling density, a single informal settlement dwelling fire may result in a very serious fire disaster leaving thousands of people homeless. In this work, a simple physics-based theoretical model was employed to assess the critical fire separation distance between

An ultimate goal of placing fire detection systems in buildings and structures is to allow for the rapid detection of fire and accurate faster than real time prediction of ensuing fire behavior so that relevant information can be delivered to the appropriate stakeholders. In the near-term, development of detection systems with decreased detection time, better discrimination against nuisance and false

Passenger safety is one of the main goals of railway tunnels design, being the evacuation of a burning train one of the worst scenarios, where any delay to start the evacuation is crucial for passenger’s survival. Previous research works have separately studied the evacuation of railway tunnels due to fires and the effect of tunnel slope on gas and smoke spread, but none of them has addressed both

Ageing populations are generating new challenges for the safe design of buildings and infrastructure systems in communities around the world. Elderly building occupants are more likely to have mobility impairments, and in turn, require longer times and increased assistance to evacuate buildings compared with able-bodied adults. To date, only a few studies have been carried out to assess the evacuation

This paper sets out to answer two questions. What effect does installing smoke alarms have on reported fires and casualties for the “average” household? How much of an effect would increasing smoke alarm utilization have on the total number of fires and casualties in the United States? The installation of smoke alarms in homes without them will reduce the expected number of fires reported from a (formerly)

This paper is a re-examination to quantify the flame tilt angle of fires induced by stack effect from a heat and mass transfer perspective. In previous studies, the critical transition and length of the deflection flame were formulated. In the current study, with different kinds of fuels, the flame tilt angles under different strength of stack effect are compared. Results show that under stack effect

Fire is a chaotic and extreme phenomenon. While the past few years have witnessed the success of integrating machine intelligence (MI) to tackle equally complex problems in parallel fields, we continue to shy away from leveraging MI to study fire behavior or to evaluate fire performance of materials and structures. In order to advocate for the use of MI, this review showcases the merit of adopting

A wireless sensor network was created to measure water-flow rate in a fire hose. An integrated electronic piezoelectric accelerometer was chosen as the sensor to measure the flow rate based on the vibrations generated by water flowing through a fire hose close to the hose nozzle. These sensors are small, lightweight, and they can attach to the outside of the hose, not obstructing the water’s flow path

Understanding the fire behaviour in buildings is fundamental and crucial to the practice of structural fire safety design. Traditionally, time-temperature curves associated with a burning rate developed from the “compartment fire framework” are most widely used by structural engineers and applied as a load to the structure. However, the adequacy of homogenous temperature distribution in fully developed

In the present study, the mechanical properties and the residual stress–strain behavior of lightweight concrete (LWC) containing pumice coarse aggregate and rock wool waste (consisting of mineral fibers) were explored prior to and following thermal loading. Key variables included the volume percentage of rock wool waste (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%) and exposure temperature (20°C, 200°C, 400°C, and

The accuracy of the exhaust flow measurement contributes significantly to the uncertainty of calorimetry measurements for large fire testing. Less than ideal flow characteristics such as skewed velocity distributions are typical of these large-scale flows and make it difficult to achieve the desired measurement accuracy. Consensus standards for fire testing recommend either bi-directional probes or

A new instrument to quantify firebrand dynamics during fires with particular focus on those associated with the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) has been developed. During WUI fires, firebrands can ignite spot fires, which can rapidly increase the rate of spread (ROS) of the fire, provide a mechanism by which the fire can pass over firebreaks and are the leading cause of structure ignitions. Despite

Generated fire effluents are toxic and responsible for the majority of fire deaths and injuries. Therefore, measures of fire safety and the assessment of toxic effects of fires on humans, which are the key factors to assess fire hazards, have been researched in the last decades. However, it is more and more recognized that there is also a need to assess the environmental impact of toxic compounds within

Experiments and theoretical analysis were conducted to investigate the upward flame spread over a homogenous PMMA plate and an array of discrete thermally thin PMMA elements. In the experiment, a digital video camera was used to record the flame spread process. An electronic balance and thermocouples were adopted to monitor the mass loss and pyrolysis front position, respectively, as a function of

A series of experiments were conducted in a large room to generate data to assess the accuracy of computer fire model predictions of detector activation time. A comparison between experimental measurements and zone model predictions of the detector activation in the Consolidated Fire and Smoke Transport model (CFAST) version 7.4.3 were made. The experimental room was 11.0 m by 7.3 m by 3.7 m high with

The risk of fires is ever increasing along with the boom of urban buildings. The current methods of detecting fire with the use of smoke sensors with large areas, however poses an issue. The introduction of video surveillance systems has given a great opportunity for identifying smoke and flame from faraway locations and tackles this risk. Processing this huge amount of data is a problem with using

False alarm resistant smoke detectors must pass the inflight smoke-detection certification test for implementation in aircraft. Inflight certification testing uses artificial smoke generators due to health and safety. Currently, there are no objective parameters to quantify an artificial smoke generator’s aerosol production for certification testing. Therefore, this study’s design was to create a framework

Forest fires are one of the major environmental concerns, each year millions of hectares are destroyed over the world, causing economic and ecological damage as well as human lives. Thus, predicting such an environmental issue becomes a critical concern to mitigate this threat. Several technologies and new methods have been proposed to predict and detect forest fires. The trend is toward the integration

In this study, a numerical model for tracing the behavior of eccentrically loaded slender reinforced concrete (RC) columns bent in single and double curvature, and subjected to elevated temperatures is presented. The developed model incorporates the high-temperature material properties, the nonlinear behavior of concrete sections, time dependent effects, and the nonlinear responses of slender RC columns

An experimental program was conducted to assess the firefighting capabilities (extinguishment and burnback times) of five commercially available, Underwriters Laboratories listed (UL 162) fluorine-free foams (FFFs) [three alcohol resistant (AR) and two hydrocarbon approved (H)] and one short chain C6 aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) formulation (for baseline) as a function of application rate (gpm/ft2)

A series of compartment fire experiments is described in which a square natural gas burner was positioned in a corner or against a wall and gradually moved towards the room center to assess the relative effects on the plume and compartment temperatures. The experiments were conducted to validate computational fluid dynamics simulations that were performed to provide guidance for probabilistic risk

In fire resistance tests, stone wool’s organic matter undergoes exothermic oxidative reactions sustained by external heat, causing mass transfer in the structure. The previous modelling attempts, lacking the mass transfer physics, fall short in predicting the temperature of high density and high organic content samples. To fill this gap in the fire engineering modelling capability, we include mass

There are currently efforts to inform the public of the fire safety benefits of keeping bedroom doors closed when occupants are sleeping. A closed door can provide a substantial advantage to sleeping occupants of a bedroom in the event of a fire by hindering the spread of heat and toxic gases. The overall benefit in this arrangement is clear when occupants have interconnected smoke alarms inside and

Past studies suggest that people are often reluctant to use occupant evacuation elevators in case of fire. However, existing research is scarce and current knowledge is based on questionnaire studies and laboratory experiments. An unannounced evacuation experiment was therefore performed on the 16th floor of a 35-floor high-rise hotel building. Sixty-seven participants took part and eye-tracking glasses

During wildfire events fire-protective gels can be used as a line of defense to protect structures. The effectiveness of freshly applied gels in delaying ignition and flame growth on structures has been well established. However, in a real-world scenario there is a period between the application of the gel and the arrival of a spot fire or the fire-front. During this period, the gels are often exposed

Emergency incidents and events of fires can be dangerous and required quick and accurate decision-making need quick and correct decision-making. The use of computer vision for fire detection can provide a efficient solution to deal with these situations. These systems handle the usual data, provide an automated solution, and discard non-relevant information without discarding relevant content. Researchers

The paper is focused on the topic of smoke control in a confined, underground cellar area of a historical building, that is undergoing conversion to a restaurant. Similar venues were host to some of the most devastating fires in history. We have investigated the performance of a novel solution, “smart smoke control (SSC)”, and compared its performance with “traditional” smoke venting solution. The

This review aims to provide additional context to the historical narrative of the development of the standard temperature–time heating curve used for the determination of the fire resistance of structural elements. While historical narratives of the development of the standard temperature–time heating curve exist, there are portions of the timeline with missing contributions and contributions deserving

Most previous work concentrated on the one-sided upward flame spread under limited conditions. However, few investigations have studied the effects of limited distance between wall and fuel surface on two-sided upward flame spreading. In this paper, a series of upward flame spread experiments were conducted using 0.65 mm thick, 130 cm tall and 4.0 cm wide flax fabric sheets with various limited distance

Flame merging is deemed to enhance the burning intensity and make the fire more destructive. This paper presents an experimental study on merging behaviors of two same rectangular heptane pool fires with long sides parallel. The pan aspect ratio was set 2–4 and the spacing was changed. The burning rate and flame height were measured. As the spacing decreases, the flame shape was divided into five regions

Concrete structures develop high levels of transient creep strain when exposed to fire, especially when temperatures in a member exceed 500°C. This high-temperature creep strain can dominate the deformation response under severe fire scenarios and needs to be properly accounted for in the fire resistance analysis. Most of the current approaches for fire resistance calculations, including advanced analysis

The dynamical evolution of a multiple fuel package fire leaves thermal signatures. For practical and theoretical reasons, it is important to determine conditions in which one can identify the path the system took by conducting a set of experiments that cover the space of all possible paths. An experimental fire compartment capable of producing repeatable and highly customizable fire-evolution scenarios

Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are being increasingly deployed in energy storage systems (ESS) due to a high energy density. However, the inherent flammability of current LIBs presents a new challenge to fire protection system design. While bench-scale testing has focused on the hazard of a single battery, or small collection of batteries, the more complex burning behavior of a commercially design module

This scoping review addresses the role of functional limitations on evacuation performance of adults in public buildings. Although this topic has been addressed in evacuation research, no linkage is currently available between functional limitations, the predominant activities affected by them and evacuation performance. This review strives to open a debate on the need to classify the impact of disability

This work describes a deep learning methodology for “emulating” temperature outputs produced by the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), a CFD software. An array of artificial neural networks (ANNs) is trained to predict transient temperatures at specified locations for a transient heat release rate (HRR) input. These locations correspond to the locations of thermocouples used in an experimental burn structure

A cross-region transfer learning method is proposed to identify community (e.g. car parks, public spaces and shopping centers) fire hazards based on text input provided by community members. The key component of the method, which also accounts for data imbalance, is an improved transfer component analysis that is embedded with a local discriminant analysis to transfer non-local rich knowledge to the

The demand for lithium-ion battery powered road vehicles continues to increase around the world. As more of these become operational across the globe, their involvement in traffic accidents and incidents is likely to rise. This can damage the lithium-ion battery and subsequently pose a threat to occupants and responders as well as those involved in vehicle recovery and salvage operations. The project

Thermal response of the honeycomb sandwich structure was evaluated using the steady-state method at different temperatures ranging from 100°C to 400°C. The results showed that effective thermal conductivity decreases when the temperature set is over 300°C, and the critical temperature is about 310°C. As a result, a set of experiments was conducted to observe the inner structure of the sandwich in a

Tunnels are nowadays key elements in transport networks worldwide. To achieve a safe and efficient operation, a proper integration and design of Mechanical, Electrical and Intelligent Transportation Systems is required. Among these systems, tunnel ventilation is one of the most critical ones from the Fire Life Safety perspective, being smoke control to maintain safe conditions during self-evacuation

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as energy storage devices. However, a disadvantage of these batteries is their tendency to ignite and burn, thereby creating a fire hazard. Ignition of LIBs can be triggered by abuse conditions (mechanical, electrical or thermal abuse) or internal short circuit. In addition, ignition could also be triggered by self-heating when LIBs are stacked during storage

Temperature and temperature consistency have an important effect on the effective performance and thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries. Huge temperature inconsistency can lead to the behavior of overcharge and overdischarge so that it improves the risk of fire and thermal runaway. Temperature rise and heat generation rate during discharging under adiabatic condition are measured by experiments.

Fire spread occurs via radiation, flame contact, and firebrands. While firebrand showers are known to be a cause of spot fires which ignite fuels far from the main fire front, in the case of short distance spot fires, radiation from the main fire may play a role for firebrand induced ignition processes. Many past investigations have focused on singular effects on fire spread, and little is known about

In this study, a 100 m2 steel tank was used to simulate transformer oil fires, with an aim of investigating the burning characteristics of a large-scale pool fire. To recover a real thermal state of transformer oil in operation, a heating system was employed to raise the initial fuel temperature. In total, three fire-extinguishing tests were performed using two delivery methods, i.e., a hand-held fire

Stringent fire safety regulations have limited the use of green biocomposites in practical applications due to vulnerability of their constituents to heat and fire. To counter this weakness, several flame-retardant treatments and techniques have been introduced, such as halogenated and non-halogenated flame-retardants, nano fillers, layered silicates, copolymerization, grafting, and synergistic use

Many thermal events have been reported during storage and transport of large numbers of Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), raising industry concerns and research interests in its mechanisms. Apart from electrochemical failure, self-heating ignition, driven by poor heat transfer could also be a possible cause of fire in large-scale ensembles of LIBs. The classical theories and models of self-heating ignition

Australia has the most significant wildfire problem in Oceania, with in excess of 50,000 wildfires per annum on average, and an average of 500,000 km2 of land burnt by wildfires annually across the nation. Each year a number of these wildfires also affect the built environment at the wildland-urban interface (WUI). Each year in Australia, 84 dwellings are destroyed by wildfires on average, albeit historically

Based on evidence from previous studies, fire mortality rates among older adults on a local level seem to be related two dimensions; population vulnerability and societal protection. In this paper, we investigate the magnitude of the impacts of variation along these two dimensions on the rate of fatal fires involving at least one older adult (65 + years) in Swedish municipalities. Our empirical strategy

Preventing thermal runaway propagation is critical to improve the fire safety of electric vehicles. Experiments are conducted on the designed battery modules to study the effects of aerogel, liquid cooling plate, and their combination on the prevention mechanism of thermal runaway propagation. The characteristics of temperature, voltage, mass loss, and venting during the thermal runaway propagation

Battery explosion incidents hinder the development and application of Li-ion batteries. This paper describes the use of nondestructive computed tomography (CT) to analyze cylindrical Li-ion battery samples that underwent thermal runaway and exploded. Unlike destructive analysis methods, which can lead to a loss of battery structural information, CT scan allows direct observation of a battery’s internal

Fuel load is a crucial parameter for evaluating design fires for buildings. However, the availability of fuel load data is currently hindered by the lack of an efficient on-site data collection method. This research develops a new methodology for fuel load surveys that can facilitate the collection, storage, and analysis of fuel load data for a variety of building occupancies. The new survey method

The conditions under which auto-extinction of timber can occur are of particular importance for mass timber structures where elements of structural timber are exposed, or become exposed, during a fire. Using experiments on 95 mm cubes of timber, the sensitivity of auto-extinction to sample orientation, and an imposed flow across the surface of the sample was investigated. It was found that the variation

In recent years, due to global warming, we have witnessed an increase in the occurrence of extreme forest fire events, with corresponding rise in human fatalities and damage costs. In 2017, in Portugal alone, more than 100 people lost their lives due to forest fires. This tragedy also hit other regions such as California, Greece or Australia. These losses tend to increase, and human means are becoming

CEN and NFPA have expanded the application of water mist in open environments from light solid combustible fire hazards to several in the higher hazard categories. A previous analysis and test evaluation showed that such application expansion is feasible, provided that the water mist spray meets droplet size and application density requirements for the intended fire challenge. However, this evaluation