This paper describes a new modification of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs) for the modeling of autonomous entities that make decisions in a dynamic environment. The paper offers a general design for an FCM adjusted for the decision-making of autonomous agents through the categorization of its concepts into three different classes according to their purpose in the map: Needs, Activities, and States (FCM-NAS)

Supervised learning by means of Genetic Programming (GP) aims at the evolutionary synthesis of a model that achieves a balance between approximating the target function on the training data and generalising on new data. The model space searched by the Evolutionary Algorithm is populated by compositions of primitive functions defined in a function set. Since the target function is unknown, the choice

Intraday trading attempts to obtain a profit from the microstructure implicit in price data. Intraday trading implies many more transactions per stock compared to long term buy-and-hold strategies. As a consequence, transaction costs will have a more significant impact on the profitability. Furthermore, the application of existing long term portfolio selection algorithms for intraday trading cannot

Symbolic regression (SR) is a powerful method for building predictive models from data without assuming any model structure. Traditionally, genetic programming (GP) was used as the SR engine. However, for these purely evolutionary methods it was quite hard to even accommodate the function to the range of the data and the training was consequently inefficient and slow. Recently, several SR algorithms

Predictive algorithms are powerful tools to support infection surveillance plans based on the monitoring of vector abundance. In this article, we explore the use of genetic programming (GP) to build a predictive model of mosquito abundance based on environmental and climatic variables. We claim, in fact, that the heterogeneity and complexity of this kind of dataset demands algorithms capable of discovering

Cyber security adversaries and engagements are ubiquitous and ceaseless. We delineate Adversarial Genetic Programming for Cyber Security, a research topic that, by means of genetic programming (GP), replicates and studies the behavior of cyber adversaries and the dynamics of their engagements. Adversarial Genetic Programming for Cyber Security encompasses extant and immediate research efforts in a

Genetic programming has found recent success as a tool for learning sets of features for regression and classification. Multidimensional genetic programming is a useful variant of genetic programming for this task because it represents candidate solutions as sets of programs. These sets of programs expose additional information that can be exploited for building block identification. In this work,

Genetic programming is a powerful, robust and versatile tool that is suitable for predicting and forecasting, especially in the steelmaking industry, where the diversity of serial production processes and equipment strongly influence final product properties, quality and price. The article reviews a wide spectrum of implementation attempts of genetic programing in the steelmaking industry, including

We present a review of the application of genetic programming (GP) and other variations of evolutionary computation (EC) to the creative art of music composition. Throughout the development of EC methods, since the early 1990s, a small number of researchers have considered aesthetic problems such as the act of composing music alongside other more traditional problem domains. Over the years, interest

Manifold learning techniques have become increasingly valuable as data continues to grow in size. By discovering a lower-dimensional representation (embedding) of the structure of a dataset, manifold learning algorithms can substantially reduce the dimensionality of a dataset while preserving as much information as possible. However, state-of-the-art manifold learning algorithms are opaque in how they

We introduce a form of neutral horizontal gene transfer (HGT) to evolving graphs by graph programming (EGGP). We introduce the \(\mu \times \lambda\) evolutionary algorithm (EA), where \(\mu\) parents each produce \(\lambda\) children who compete only with their parents. HGT events then copy the entire active component of one surviving parent into the inactive component of another parent, exchanging

Since the early nineties the lack of scalability of fitness evaluation has been the main bottleneck preventing the adoption of evolutionary algorithms for logic circuits synthesis. Recently, various formal approaches such as SAT and BDD solvers have been introduced to this field to overcome this issue. This made it possible to optimise complex circuits consisting of hundreds of inputs and thousands

Lexicase parent selection filters the population by considering one random training case at a time, eliminating any individual with an error for the current case that is worse than the best error of any individual in the selection pool, until a single individual remains. This process often stops before considering all training cases, meaning that it will ignore the error values on any cases that were

Genotype–phenotype mapping plays an essential role in the design of an evolutionary algorithm. Variation occurs at the genotypic level but fitness is evaluated at the phenotypic level, therefore, this mapping determines if and how variations are effectively translated into quality improvements. In evolutionary algorithms, this mapping has often been observed as highly redundant, i.e., multiple genotypes

This article describes a new genetic-programming-based optimization method using a multi-gene approach along with a niching strategy and periodic domain constraints. The method is referred to as Niching MG-PMA, where MG refers to multi-gene and PMA to parameter mapping approach. Although it was designed to be a multimodal optimization method, recent tests have revealed its suitability for unimodal

In this paper we analyze the effects of using nonlinear least squares for parameter identification of symbolic regression models and integrate it as local search mechanism in tree-based genetic programming. We employ the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm for parameter optimization and calculate gradients via automatic differentiation. We provide examples where the parameter identification succeeds and

We propose a genetic programming markup language (GPML), an XML-based standard for the interchange of genetic programming trees, and outline the benefits such a format would bring in allowing the deployment of trained genetic programming (GP) models in applications as well as the subsidiary benefit of allowing GP researchers to directly share trained trees. We present a formal definition of this standard

Evolutionary circuit design is a promising way to study new circuit design methodologies, and the passive filter is the most basic circuit module widely existing in modern electronic systems. Focused on the basic and fatal criterion related to the filter circuit design, this paper presents a novel evolutionary design model of passive filter circuit. The proposed model includes a circuit representation

Transfer learning (TL) is the process by which some aspects of a machine learning model generated on a source task is transferred to a target task, to simplify the learning required to solve the target. TL in Genetic Programming (GP) has not received much attention, since it is normally assumed that an evolved symbolic expression is specifically tailored to a problem’s data and thus cannot be used

The process of developing new test statistics is laborious, requiring the manual development and evaluation of mathematical functions that satisfy several theoretical properties. Automating this process, hitherto not done, would greatly accelerate the discovery of much-needed, new test statistics. This automation is a challenging problem because it requires the discovery method to know something about

GPTIPS is a widely used genetic programming software that was developed in Matlab. The most recent version of this software, GPTIPS 2.0, provides a symbolic multi-gene regression for data analysis, in addition to traditional evolutionary algorithms. We briefly explain the GPTIPS methodology and describe its main features, including its weaknesses and strengths, and give examples of GPTIPS applications

Automatic programming, the automatic generation of a computer program given a high-level statement of the program’s desired behaviour, is a stated objective of the field of genetic programming. As the general solution to a computational problem is to write a computer program, and given that genetic programming can automatically generate a computer program, researchers in the field of genetic programming

While the origins of genetic programming (GP) stretch back over 50 years, the field of GP was invigorated by John Koza’s popularisation of the methodology in the 1990s. A particular feature of the GP literature since then has been a strong interest in the application of GP to real-world problem domains. One application domain which has attracted significant attention is that of finance and economics

Cartesian genetic programming, a well-established method of genetic programming, is approximately 20 years old. It represents solutions to computational problems as graphs. Its genetic encoding includes explicitly redundant genes which are well-known to assist in effective evolutionary search. In this article, we review and compare many of the important aspects of the method and findings discussed

In this work we present an extensive bibliometric and content-based analysis of the scientific literature about genetic programming in the twenty-first century. Our work has two key peculiarities. First, we revealed the topics emerging from the literature based on an unsupervised analysis of the textual content of titles and abstracts. Second, we executed all of our analyses twice, once on the papers

Since its inception genetic programming, and later variations such as grammar-based genetic programming and grammatical evolution, have contributed to various domains such as classification, image processing, search-based software engineering, amongst others. This paper examines the role that genetic programming has played in education. The paper firstly provides an overview of the impact that genetic

This work takes us through the literature on applications of genetic programming to problems of natural language processing. The purpose of natural language processing is to allow us to communicate with computers in natural language. Among the problems addressed in the area is, for example, the extraction of information, which draws relevant data from unstructured texts written in natural language

Neutral program variants are alternative implementations of a program, yet equivalent with respect to the test suite. Techniques such as approximate computing or genetic improvement share the intuition that potential for enhancements lies in these acceptable behavioral differences (e.g., enhanced performance or reliability). Yet, the automatic synthesis of neutral program variants, through program

A novel feature selection method based on a multi-swarm particle swarm optimization (MSPSO) is proposed in this paper. The canonical particle swarm optimization (PSO) has been widely used for feature selection problems. However, PSO suffers from stagnation in local optimal solutions and premature convergence in complex feature selection problems. This paper employs the multi-swarm topology in which

The covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMA-ES) is an efficient derivative-free optimization algorithm. It optimizes a black-box objective function over a well-defined parameter space in which feature functions are often defined manually. Therefore, the performance of those techniques strongly depends on the quality of the chosen features or the underlying parametric function space. Hence

Evolutionary algorithms have been used to solve a number of variable-length problems, many of which share a common representation. A set of design variables is repeatedly defined, giving the genome a segmented structure. Each segment encodes a portion, frequently a single component, of the solution. For example, in a wind farm design problem each segment may encode the position and height of a single

We propose a novel method to evolve autoencoding structures through genetic programming (GP) for representation learning on high dimensional data. It involves a partitioning scheme of high dimensional input representations for distributed processing as well as an on-line form of learning that allows GP to efficiently process training datasets composed of hundreds or thousands of samples. The use of

The GPTP workshop series, which began in 2003, has served over the years as a focal meeting for genetic programming (GP) researchers. As such, we think it provides an excellent source for studying the development of GP over the past fifteen years. We thus present herein a trajectory of the thematic developments in the field of GP.

Research on classifier transferability intends that the information gathered in the solution of a given classification problem could be reused in the solution of similar or related problems. We propose the evolution of transferable classifiers based on the use of multi-objective genetic programming and new fitness-functions that evaluate the amount of transferability. We focus on the domain adaptation

This work presents a unique genetic programming (GP) approach that integrates a numerical local search method and a bloat-control mechanism to address some of the main issues with traditional GP. The former provides a directed search operator to work in conjunction with standard syntax operators that perform more exploration in design space, while the latter controls code growth by maintaining program

Stochastic synthesis of recursive functions has historically proved difficult, not least due to issues of non-termination and the often ad hoc methods for addressing this. This article presents a general method of implicit recursion which operates via an automatically-derivable decomposition of datatype structure by cases, thereby ensuring well-foundedness. The method is applied to recursive functions

In computer vision, the salient object detection problem consists of finding the most attention-grabbing objects in images. In the last years, many researchers have proposed salient object detection algorithms to address this problem. However, most of the algorithms perform well only on images with specific conditions and they do not solve the general problem. To cope with a more significant number

The scale at which the human race consumes data has increased exponentially in recent years. One key part in this increase has been the usage of smart phones and connected devices by the populous. Multi-level heterogeneous networks are the driving force behind this mobile revolution, but these are constrained with limited bandwidth and over-subscription. Scheduling users on these networks has become

The journal and in particular the resource reviews have been running for 20 years. We summarise the GP literature, including top papers and authors, as seen by users of the genetic programming bibliography. Then revisit our original goals for GPEM book reviews and compare them with what has achieved.

The automated design of a set of practice problems that co-adapts to a population of learners is a challenging problem. Fortunately, coevolutionary computation offers a rich framework to study interactions between two co-adapting populations of teachers and learners. This framework is also relevant in scenarios in which a population of students solve practice exercises that are synthesized by an evolutionary

Vector quantization (VQ) is a popular image compression technique with a simple decoding architecture and high compression ratio. Codebook designing is the most essential part in vector quantization. Linde–Buzo–Gray (LBG) is a traditional method of generation of VQ codebook which results in lower PSNR value. A codebook affects the quality of image compression, so the choice of an appropriate codebook

We give a critical assessment of the DEAP (Distributed Evolutionary Algorithm in Python) open-source library and highly recommend it to both beginners and experts alike. DEAP supports a range of evolutionary algorithms including both strongly and loosely typed Genetic Programming, Genetic Algorithm, and Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms such as NSGA-II and SPEA2. It contains most of the basic

The process of developing new test statistics is laborious, requiring the manual development and evaluation of mathematical functions that satisfy several theoretical properties. Automating this process, hitherto not done, would greatly accelerate the discovery of much-needed, new test statistics. This automation is a challenging problem because it requires the discovery method to know something about

Evolvable hardware allows the generation of circuits that are adapted to specific problems by using an evolutionary algorithm (EA). Dynamic partial reconfiguration of FPGA LUTs allows making the processing elements (PEs) of these circuits small and compact, thus allowing large scale circuits to be implemented in a small FPGA area. This facilitates the use of these techniques in embedded systems with

Deep evolutionary network structured representation (DENSER) is a novel evolutionary approach for the automatic generation of deep neural networks (DNNs) which combines the principles of genetic algorithms (GAs) with those of dynamic structured grammatical evolution (DSGE). The GA-level encodes the macro structure of evolution, i.e., the layers, learning, and/or data augmentation methods (among others);

We present MergeLife, a genetic algorithm (GA) capable of evolving continuous cellular automata (CA) that generate full color dynamic animations according to aesthetic user specifications. A simple 16-byte update rule is introduced that is evolved through an objective function that requires only initial human aesthetic guidelines. This update rule provides a fixed-length genome that can be successfully

In this paper, using high-frequency intra-daily data from the UK market, we employ genetic programming (GP) to uncover a hedging strategy for FTSE 100 call options, hedged using FTSE 100 futures contracts. The output from the evolved strategies is a rebalancing signal which is conditioned upon a range of dynamic non-linear factors related to market conditions including liquidity and volatility. When

Visualisation is an important aspect of evolutionary computation, enabling practitioners to explore the operation of their algorithms in an intuitive way and providing a better means for displaying their results to problem owners. The presentation of the complex data arising in many-objective evolutionary algorithms remains a challenge, and this work examines the use of treemaps and sunbursts for visualising

The search landscape is a common metaphor to describe the structure of computational search spaces. Different landscape metrics can be computed and used to predict search difficulty. Yet, the metaphor falls short in visualisation terms because it is hard to represent complex landscapes, both in terms of size and dimensionality. This paper combines local optima networks, as a compact representation

VALIS is an effective and robust classification algorithm with a focus on understandability. Its name stems from Vote-ALlocating Immune System, as it evolves a population of artificial antibodies that can bind to the input data, and performs classification through a voting process. In the beginning of the training, VALIS generates a set of random candidate antibodies; at each iteration, it selects

This work is based on a cooperative co-evolution algorithm called ‘Fly Algorithm’, which is an evolutionary algorithm (EA) where individuals are called ‘flies’. It is a specific case of the ‘Parisian Approach’ where the solution of an optimisation problem is a set of individuals (e.g. the whole population) instead of a single individual (the best one) as in typical EAs. The optimisation problem considered

Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) have proven to be effective in tackling problems in many different domains. However, users are often required to spend a significant amount of effort in fine-tuning the EA parameters in order to make the algorithm work. In principle, visualization tools may be of great help in this laborious task, but current visualization tools are either EA-specific, and hence hardly

A long-standing problem in evolutionary computation consists in how to choose an appropriate representation for the solutions. In this work we investigate the feasibility of synthesizing a representation automatically, for the large class of problems whose solution spaces can be defined by a context-free grammar. We propose a framework based on a form of meta-evolution in which individuals are candidate

We report a series of experiments that use semantic-based local search within a multiobjective genetic programming (GP) framework. We compare various ways of selecting target subtrees for local search as well as different methods for performing that search; we have also made comparison with the random desired operator of Pawlak et al. using statistical hypothesis testing. We find that a standard steady

This paper presents a self-adaptive multi-population approach based on genetic algorithm (GA) for solving dynamic resource allocation in shared hosting platforms. The proposed method, self-adaptive multi-population genetic algorithm (SAMPGA), is a multi-population GA strategy aimed at locating and tracking optima. This approach is based on preventing populations from searching in the same areas. Two

Hyper-heuristic methodologies have been extensively and successfully used to generate combinatorial optimization heuristics. On the other hand, there have been almost no attempts to build a hyper-heuristic to evolve an algorithm for solving real-valued optimization problems. In our previous research, we succeeded to evolve a Nelder–Mead-like real function minimization heuristic using genetic programming

Modularity is an ongoing focus in genetic programming research. Enhanced modularity can accelerate solution convergence and increase human understanding and knowledge gained from evolved programs. Prior advances in modularity research have addressed programming language elements such as functions, modules, and recursion. This paper proposes improving modularity by considering non-language elements

We propose a model based on an evolutionary process combined with an adapted planning process to develop a limited spatial language with a syntactical structure in a team of artificial agents. Syntax is induced by means of a grammar and the grammar itself evolves in order to reach a syntactical agreement in the team. Evolution is implemented by adapting an evolutionary algorithm where each agent in

In this paper, we present three implementations of an online evolvable hardware classifier of sonar signals on a 28 nm process technology FPGA, and compare their features using the most relevant metrics in the design of hardware: area, timing, power consumption, energy consumption, and performance. The three implementations are: one full-hardware implementation in which all the modules of the evolvable