Low-dimensional self-organized surface structures, induced by (sub)monolayer metal adsorbates on semiconductor surfaces may give rise not only to a variety of emergent electronic properties, but also to a multitude of specific localized vibronic features. The focus of this review is on the analysis of these novel surface vibration eigenmodes. The application of in situ surface Raman spectroscopy under UHV conditions on clean semiconductor surfaces and those with self-ordered adsorbates, in close conjunction with the calculations of Raman spectra, based on the first-principles determination of the structural, electronic and vibronic properties, allows a consistent determination of the vibration eigenfrequencies, symmmetry properties, and elongation patterns of the systems of interest. The localized nature of the surface eigenmodes determines the surface sensitivity, independent of the high light penetration depth of light. The surface contribution can be selectively enhanced by employing resonance condition to surface electronic transitions. Moreover, surface and bulk contributions can be separated by taking difference spectra between various stages of surface preparation. The relevant surfaces are Ge and moreover Si with different orientations ((111) and vicinal (hhk)), on which the adsorption of various metal elements (Au, Sn, Pb, or In) gives rise to two- and quasi-one-dimensional structures (e.g. Au-(5×2)/Si(111)) with a variety of vibration modes. The Raman analysis of these modes does not only enable the distinction between different proposed structural models (e.g. for Au-(3×3)/Si(111)), but also gives access to the role of electron-phonon coupling in structural phase transitions (e.g. for In-(8×2)–(4×1)/Si(111)).

Nanostructures, with their very large surface to volume ratio and their non-planar geometry, present an important challenge to surface scientists. New issues arise as to surface characterization, quantification and interface formation. This review summarizes the current state of the art in the synthesis, composition, surface and interface control of CdSe nanocrystal systems, one of the most studied and useful nanostructures.

The review describes the physical and chemical phenomena occurring between solid ceramics used as reinforcement and liquid metals and alloys used as matrix in the composite coatings. Initially, the properties of typical matrix metals as Ni, Co, Fe and alloys as Ni-based (NiCr, NiAl, NiCrAlY,…) and Co-based (Stellites) alloys in liquid state are described. Then, the phenomena related to the diffusion of some atoms such as nitrogen or carbon in liquid metals and alloys solidification are described. Subsequently, the phenomena at the interface between liquid metals and alloys and solid ceramics such as oxides or carbides during the coatings’ formation are reviewed. Finally, the methods of composite coatings deposition using laser cladding and plasma transferred arc are described and the properties of the composite coatings related to their microstructure are discussed by taking into account the phenomena in melt-pool.

A review of directional Auger (DAES) and directional elastic peak electron spectroscopy (DEPES) for investigations of the short range order within a near-surface region, similar to XPD, is presented. The application of these techniques requires nothing more than a retarding field analyser (RFA), commonly applied for the observation of low energy electron diffraction (LEED) patterns and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) measurements, for in depth structural investigations associated with the short range order within a near-surface region. The physical principles, experimental set-up, as well as examples of experimental and theoretical results, the latter obtained with the use of single scattering cluster (SSC) and multiple scattering (MS) calculations adopted for primary electron plane wave, are shown. The scattering geometry and details concerning the scattering events of primary electrons in crystalline solids described by SSC and MS approximations are presented. Furthermore, some issues related to computation parameters such as: maximal scattering order, the maximum radius around the emitter, the number of cluster layers, and the averaging range considered in the calculations are also addressed. The presentation of the data obtained for clean and covered substrates in the form of polar profiles and stereographic intensity distributions enables the straightforward identification of the crystalline structure within the first few sample layers. The data presented in the form of anisotropy maps enable the identification of interatomic axes formed between substrate and adsorbate atoms at the interface. The contribution of different sample layers to the final DEPES signal is discussed. The comparison of DAES results with those obtained by means of x-ray photoelectron diffraction (XPD) is also presented. The qualitative and quantitative data analysis, the latter achieved by the comparison of experimental data with theoretical results by means of an R-factor analysis, is shown. The application of DAES and DEPES enables the characterization of the crystalline structure of adsorption systems from one monolayer (1ML) up to thicknesses of the adsorbate limited by the inelastic mean free path of the registered electrons. Exemplary results are presented for adsorption systems, where the adsorbate and the substrate crystallize in the same (Ag/Cu, Pt/Cu, Cu/Pt) and in different (Cu/Ru) structures. The influence of the large unit cell of graphene formed on Ru(0001) on measured DEPES intensities is also shown. The detailed analysis of these results enables an identification of the short range order of atoms within the near-surface region, of adsorbate domains exhibiting different orientation with respect to the crystalline substrate, the determination of the domain populations, the relaxation and termination of the surface, the specific adsorption sites of adsorbed atoms, as well as the positions of atoms within a unit cell and their bond lengths (e.g. O/Ru(101¯0)).

Two-dimensional (2D) crystals have developed into a popular mainstream research topic which is interesting for basic research and many applications. Gas-surface interactions, as reviewed here, are important for catalysis including noble metal-free catalysts, materials science, and surface science as well as environmental and energy technologies. Basic science concerns fundamental differences of 2D crystals and bulk materials as well as e.g. how the substrate of epitaxial 2D crystals affects their surface properties. Most of the attention so far obtained (gas-phase) water adsorption which always was an evergreen in surface science. However, studies about small inorganic/organic molecule adsorption (CO, CO2, NOx, O2, H, rare gases, H2S, SO2, alkanes, benzene, alcohols, thiophene, etc.) and surface reactions on 2D crystals (CO oxidation, ethylene epoxidation, oxygen reduction reaction, SO2 and H2SO3 oxidation) started to appear in the literature as well. This review describes all of these probe molecules, but focuses on experimental and theoretical surface science model studies usually conducted at ultra-high vacuum (UHV). The review focusses on graphene and functionalized graphene (graphene oxide, N-graphene, etc.) since the bulk of the literature deals with that system. However, included in fair detail are also many other 2D crystals such as silicatene, zeolite films (doped silicatene), metal dichalcogenides (such as MoS2, WS2), boron nitride, MXenes, germanene, silicene, TiO2, graphane, graphone, and portlandene. As a prototypical example, in recent projects, the wetting properties of e.g. graphene for water were controversially discussed. Therefore, a long chapter is devoted to water on graphene. That dispute was originally based on contact angle measurements at ambient pressure. In the meanwhile detailed surface science works including theoretical modelling are available. Literature on other carboneous surfaces such as HOPG will be considered as a reference. Related works are also visible for other inorganic 2D crystals such as silicatene, i.e., 2D-SiO2, or 2D-MoS2 as well as functionalized 2D crystals (i.e. graphene oxide, N-doped graphene, graphane, etc.). Hydrophobic systems also are interesting for applications. Although included in this review, not described in very detail are electro chemistry studies, projects in the liquid phase, photo-chemistry, high pressure catalysis, and pure engineering studies (membranes, separation, fuel cells). However, in comparison with 2D crystals and to perhaps motivate related UHV surface chemistry projects in the future many of these projects were included to some extent. As a broader objective, this review summarizes the currently available knowledge needed to extend the use of 2D materials beyond the utilization of their remarkable electronic and mechanical properties.

The behavior of water in close proximity to other materials under ambient conditions is of great significance due to its importance in a broad range of daily applications and scientific research. The structure and dynamics of water at an interface or in a nanopore are often significantly different from those of its bulk counterpart. Until recently, experimental access to these interfacial water structures was difficult to realize. The advent of two-dimensional materials, especially graphene, and the availability of various scanning probe microscopies were instrumental to visualize, characterize and provide fundamental knowledge of confined water. This review article summarizes the recent experimental and theoretical progress in a better understanding of water confined between layered Van der Waals materials. These results reveal that the structure and stability of the hydrogen bonded networks are determined by the elegant balance between water-surface and water-water interactions. The water-surface interactions often lead to structures that differ significantly from the conventional bilayer model of natural ice. Here, we review the current knowledge of water adsorption in different environments and intercalation within various confinements. In addition, we extend this review to cover the influence of interfacial water on the two-dimensional material cover and summarize the use of these systems in potential novel applications. Finally, we discuss emerged issues and identify some flaws in the present understanding.

Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) monolayers have attracted considerable interest as atomically thin sp2-hybridized sheets that are readily synthesized on various metal supports. They complement the library of two-dimensional materials including graphene and open perspectives for van der Waals heterostructures. In this review, we discuss the surface science of hBN including its growth, the hBN/metal interface and its application as template for adsorbates. We mainly focus on experimental studies on hBN/metal single crystals under ultra-high vacuum conditions. The interfaces are classified regarding their geometric structure - ranging from planar to strongly corrugated overlayers - and their electronic properties - covering weakly and strongly interacting systems. The main part of this review deals with hBN/metal substrates acting as supports for adsorbates such as individual atoms, metal clusters, organic molecules, metal-organic complexes and networks. We summarize recent surface science studies that reveal the unique role of the hBN/metal interfaces in tailoring characteristic properties of such adsorbates. Central aspects include templating and self-assembly, catalytic activity and on-surface reactions, electronic and magnetic structure. As many of the resulting systems feature superstructures with periodicities in the nanometer range, a length scale also reflecting the size of adsorbates, scanning probe microscopy is one of the most common techniques employed. In short, the goal of this review is to give an overview on the experimental and complementary theoretical studies on hBN templates available to date and to highlight future perspectives.

Determination of surface structures currently requires careful measurement and computationally expensive methods since, unlike bulk crystals, guiding principles for generating surface structural hypotheses are frequently lacking. Herein, we discuss the applicability of Pauling's rules as a set of guidelines for surface structures. The wealth of solved reconstructions on SrTiO3 (100), (110), and (111) are considered, as well as nanostructures on these surfaces and a few other ABO3 oxide materials. These rules are found to explain atomic arrangements for reconstructions and thin films just as they apply to bulk oxide materials. Using this data and Pauling's rules, the fundamental structural units of reconstructions and their arrangement are discussed.

Atomic hydrogen is a highly reactive species of interest because of its role in a wide range of applications and technologies. Knowledge about the interactions of incident H atoms on metal surfaces is important for our understanding of many processes such as those occurring in plasma-enhanced catalysis and nuclear fusion in tokamak reactors. Herein we review some of the numerous experimental surface science studies that have focused on the interactions of H atoms that are incident on low-Miller index metal single-crystal surfaces. We briefly summarize the different incident H atom reaction mechanisms and several of the available methods to create H atoms in UHV environments before addressing the key thermodynamic and kinetic data available on metal and modified metal surfaces. Generally, H atoms are very reactive and exhibit high sticking coefficients even on metals where H2 molecules do not dissociate under UHV conditions. This reactivity is often reduced by adsorbates on the surface, which also create new reaction pathways. Abstraction of surface-bound D(H) adatoms by incident H(D) atoms often occurs by an Eley-Rideal mechanism, while a hot atom mechanism produces structural effects in the abstraction rates and forms homonuclear products. Additionally, incident H atoms can often induce surface reconstructions and populate subsurface and bulk absorption sites. The absorbed H atoms recombine to desorb H2 at lower temperature and can also exhibit higher subsequent reactivity with adsorbates than surface-bound H adatoms. Incident H atoms, either directly or via sorbed hydrogen species, hydrogenate adsorbed hydrocarbons, sulfur, alkali metals, oxygen, halogens, and other adatoms and small molecules. Thus, H atoms from the gas phase incident on surfaces and adsorbed layers create new reaction channels and products beyond those found from interactions of H2 molecules. Detailed aspects of the dynamics and energy transfer associated with these interactions and the important applications of hydrogen in plasma processing of semiconductors are beyond the scope of this review.

Metal-oxide interfaces are of great importance in catalytic applications since each material can provide a distinct functionality that is necessary for efficient catalysis in complex reaction pathways. Moreover, the synergy between two materials can yield properties that exceed the superposition of single sites. While interfaces between metals and metal oxides can play a key role in the reactivity of traditional supported catalysts, significant attention has recently been focused on using “inverted” oxide/metal catalysts to prepare catalytic interfaces with unique properties. In the inverted systems, metal surfaces or nanoparticles are covered by oxide layers ranging from submonolayer patches to continuous films with thickness at the nanometer scale. Inverse catalysts provide an alternative approach for catalyst design that emphasizes control over interfacial sites, including inverted model catalysts that provide an important tool for elucidation of mechanisms of interfacial catalytic reactions and oxide-coated metal nanoparticles that can yield improved stability, activity and selectivity for practical catalysts. This review begins by providing a summary of recent progress in the use of inverted model catalysts in surface science studies, where oxides are usually deposited onto the surface of metal single crystals under ultra-high vacuum conditions. Surface-level studies of inverse systems have yielded key insights into interfacial catalysis and facilitated active site identification for important reactions such as CO oxidation, the water-gas shift reaction, and CO2 reduction using well-defined model systems, informing strategies for designing improved technical catalysts. We then expand the scope of inverted catalysts, using the “inverse” strategy for preparation of higher-surface area practical catalysts, chiefly through the deposition of metal oxide films or particles onto metal nanoparticles. The synthesis techniques include encapsulation of metal nanoparticles within porous oxide shells to generate core-shell type catalysts using wet chemical techniques, the application of oxide overcoat layers through atomic layer deposition or similar techniques, and spontaneous formation of metal oxide coatings from more conventional catalyst geometries under reaction or pretreatment conditions. Oxide-coated metal nanoparticles have been applied for improvement of catalyst stability, control over transport or binding to active sites, direct modification of the active site structure, and formation of bifunctional sites. Following a survey of recent studies in each of these areas, future directions of inverted catalytic systems are discussed.

This paper presents a review of the experimental and theoretical investigations of halogen interaction with metal surfaces. The emphasis was placed on the recent measurements performed with a scanning tunneling microscope in combination with density functional theory calculations. The surface structures formed on metal surface after halogen interaction are classified into three groups: chemisorbed monolayer, surface halide, bulk-like halide. Formation of monolayer structures is described in terms of surface phase transitions. Surface halide phases are considered to be intermediates between chemisorbed halogen and bulk halide. The modern theoretical approaches in studying the dynamics of metal halogenation reactions are also presented.

As a prototypical photocatalyst, TiO2 is a material of scientific and technological interest. In photocatalysis and other applications, TiO2 is often reduced, behaving as an n-type semiconductor with unique physico-chemical properties. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the understanding of the fundamental properties and applications of excess electrons in reduced, undoped TiO2. We discuss the characteristics of excess electrons in the bulk and at the surface of rutile and anatase TiO2 focusing on their localization, spatial distribution, energy levels, and dynamical properties. We examine specific features of the electronic states for photoexcited TiO2, for intrinsic oxygen vacancy and Ti interstitial defects, and for surface hydroxyls. We discuss similarities and differences in the behaviors of excess electrons in the rutile and anatase phases. Finally, we consider the effect of excess electrons on the reactivity, focusing on the interaction between excess electrons and adsorbates.

Chemical interactions which occur at a heterogeneous interface between a gas and substrate are critical in many technological and natural processes. Ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AP-XPS) is a powerful spectroscopy tool that is inherently surface sensitive, elemental and chemical specific, with the ability to probe sample surfaces in the presence of a gas phase. In this review, we discuss the evolution of lab-based AP-XPS instruments, from the first development by Siegbahn and coworkers up through modern day systems. A comprehensive overview is given of heterogeneous experiments investigated to date via lab-based AP-XPS along with the different instrumental metrics that affect the quality of sample probing. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for lab-based AP-XPS, highlighting the efficacy for this in-demand instrument to continue to expand in its ability to significantly advance our understanding of surface chemical processes under in situ conditions in a technologically multidisciplinary setting.

Ceria (CeO2) as a support, additive, and active component for heterogeneous catalysis has been demonstrated to have great catalytic performance, which includes excellent thermal structural stability, catalytic efficiency, and chemoselectivity. Understanding the surface properties of CeO2 and the chemical reactions occurred on the corresponding interfaces is of great importance in the rational design of heterogeneous catalysts for various reactions. In general, the reversible Ce3+/Ce4+ redox pair and the surface acid-base properties contribute to the superior intrinsic catalytic capability of CeO2, and hence yield enhanced catalytic phenomenon in many reactions. Particularly, nanostructured CeO2 is characterized by a large number of surface-bound defects, which are primarily oxygen vacancies, as the surface active catalytic sites. Many efforts have therefore been made to control the surface defects and properties of CeO2 by various synthetic strategies and post-treatments. The present review provides a comprehensive overview of recent progress in regulating the surface structure and composition of CeO2 and its applications in catalysis.

Design of ions for injection water may change the wettability of oil-brine-rock (OBR) system, which has very important applications in enhanced oil recovery. Though ion-tuned wettability has been verified by various experiments, the mechanism is still not clear. In this review paper, we first present a comprehensive summarization of possible wettability alteration mechanisms, including fines migration or dissolution, multicomponent ion-exchange (MIE), electrical double layer (EDL) interaction between rock and oil, and repulsive hydration force. To clarify the key mechanism, we introduce a complete frame of theories to calculate attribution of EDL repulsion to wettability alteration by assuming constant binding forces (no MIE) and rigid smooth surface (no fines migration or dissolution). The frame consists of three parts: the classical Gouy-Chapman model coupled with interface charging mechanisms to describe EDL in oil-brine-rock systems, three methods with different boundary assumptions to evaluate EDL interaction energy, and the modified Young-Dupré equation to link EDL interaction energy with contact angle. The quantitative analysis for two typical oil-brine-rock systems provides two physical maps that show how the EDL interaction influences contact angle at different ionic composition. The result indicates that the contribution of EDL interaction to ion-tuned wettability for the studied system is not quite significant. The classical and advanced experimental work using microfabrication is reviewed briefly on the contribution of EDL repulsion to wettability alteration and compared with the theoretical results. It is indicated that the roughness of real rock surface may enhance EDL interaction. Finally we discuss some pending questions, perspectives and promising applications based on the mechanism.

In this paper we provide a concise review of present achievements in the study of spin-wave resonance (SWR) in ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As thin films. The theoretical treatment of the experimental SWR data obtained so far concentrates specifically on the spherical surface pinning (SSP) model, in which the surface spin pinning energy is expressed by configuration angles (the out-of-plane polar angle ϑ and the in-plane azimuthal angle φ ) defining the direction of surface magnetization in the considered thin film. The model is based on a series expansion of the surface spin pinning energy; the terms in the series represent the respective pinning contributions from the cubic anisotropy as well as uniaxial anisotropies. Comparing theory with the reported experimental studies of SWR in thin films of the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As, we find that besides the first-order cubic anisotropy, higher-order cubic anisotropies (in the second and third orders) as well as uniaxial anisotropies (perpendicular in the first and second orders, and in-plane diagonal) occur on the surface of this material. We use our results to plot a 3D hypersurface visualizing the angle dependence of the surface spin pinning energy in configurational space. An advantage of this spatial representation is that the shape of the obtained hypersurface allows us to predict new SWR effects that have not yet been observed experimentally. Prospective experimental studies for the verification of this surface pinning model would bring new insight into the surface anisotropy phenomenon in (Ga,Mn)As thin films and help complete the knowledge in this field, the shortage of which in the literature available to date is becoming bothersome.

A review is presented that covers the experimental and theoretical literature relating to the preparation, electronic structure and chemical and physical properties of the surfaces of the wurtzite form of GaN. The discussion includes the adsorption of various chemical elements and of inorganic, organometallic and organic species. The focus is on work that contributes to a microscopic, atomistic understanding of GaN surfaces and interfaces, and the review concludes with an assessment of possible future directions.

Understanding the physical and chemical processes in which local interactions lead to ordered structures is of particular relevance to the realization of supramolecular architectures on surfaces. While spectacular patterns have been demonstrated on metal surfaces, there have been fewer studies of the spontaneous organization of supramolecular networks on semiconductor surfaces, where the formation of covalent bonds between organics and adatoms usually hamper the diffusion of molecules and their subsequent interactions with each other. However, the saturation of the dangling bonds at a semiconductor surface is known to make them inert and offers a unique way for the engineering of molecular patterns on these surfaces. This review describes the physicochemical properties of the passivated B-Si(111)-(√3x√3) R30° surface, that enable the self-assembly of molecules into a rich variety of extended and regular structures on silicon. Particular attention is given to computational methods based on multi-scale simulations that allow to rationalize the relative contribution of the dispersion forces involved in the self-assembled networks observed with scanning tunneling microscopy. A summary of state of the art studies, where a fine tuning of the molecular network topology has been achieved, sheds light on new frontiers for exploiting the construction of supramolecular structures on semiconductor surfaces.

During the last decade, interest on the growth and self-assembly of organic molecular species on solid surfaces spread over the scientific community, largely motivated by the promise of cheap, flexible and tunable organic electronic and optoelectronic devices. These efforts lead to important advances in our understanding of the nature and strength of the non-bonding intermolecular interactions that control the assembly of the organic building blocks on solid surfaces, which have been recently reviewed in a number of excellent papers. To a large extent, such studies were possible because of a smart choice of model substrate-adsorbate systems where the molecule-substrate interactions were purposefully kept low, so that most of the observed supramolecular structures could be understood simply by considering intermolecular interactions, keeping the role of the surface always relatively small (although not completely negligible). On the other hand, the systems which are more relevant for the development of organic electronic devices include molecular species which are electron donors, acceptors or blends of donors and acceptors. Adsorption of such organic species on solid surfaces is bound to be accompanied by charge-transfer processes between the substrate and the adsorbates, and the physical and chemical properties of the molecules cannot be expected any longer to be the same as in solution phase. In recent years, a number of groups around the world have started tackling the problem of the adsorption, self- assembly and electronic and chemical properties of organic species which interact rather strongly with the surface, and for which charge-transfer must be considered. The picture that is emerging shows that charge transfer can lead to a plethora of new phenomena, from the development of delocalized band-like electron states at molecular overlayers, to the existence of new substrate-mediated intermolecular interactions or the strong modification of the chemical reactivity of the adsorbates. The aim of this review is to start drawing general conclusions and developing new concepts which will help the scientific community to proceed more efficiently towards the understanding of organic/inorganic interfaces in the strong interaction limit, where charge-transfer effects must be taken into consideration.

In this review we survey the contributions that molecular beam experiments have provided to our understanding of the dynamics and kinetics of chemical interactions of gas molecules with solid surfaces. First, we describe the experimental details of the different instrumental setups and approaches available for the study of these systems under the ultrahigh vacuum conditions and with the model planar surfaces often used in modern surface-science experiments. Next, a discussion is provided of the most important fundamental aspects of the dynamics of chemical adsorption that have been elucidated with the help of molecular beam experiments, which include the development of potential energy surfaces, the determination of the different channels for energy exchange between the incoming molecules and the surface, the identification of adsorption precursor states, the understanding of dissociative chemisorption, the determination of the contributions of corrugation, steps, and other structural details of the surface to the adsorption process, the effect to molecular steering, the identification of avenues for assisting adsorption, and the molecular details associated with the kinetics of the uptake of adsorbates as a function of coverage. We follow with a summary of the work directed at the determination of kinetic parameters and mechanistic details of surface reactions associated with catalysis, mostly those promoted by late transition metals. This discussion we initiate with an overview of what has been learned about simple bimolecular reactions such as the oxidation of CO and H2 with O2 and the reaction of CO with NO, and continue with the review of the studies of more complex systems such as the oxidation of alcohols, the conversion of organic acids, the hydrogenation and isomerization of olefins, and the oxidative activation of alkanes under conditions of short contact times. Sections 6 and 7 of this review deal with the advances made in the use of molecular beams with more realistic models for catalysis, using surfaces comprised of metal nanoparticles dispersed on the oxide surfaces used as catalyst support and high-flux beams to approach the pressures used in catalysis. The next section deals with the study of systems associated with fields other than catalysis, mainly with the etching and oxidation of semiconductor surfaces and with the chemistry used to grow thin solid films by chemical means (chemical vapor deposition, CVD, or atomic layer deposition, ALD). We end with a personal assessment of the past accomplishments, present state, and future promise of the use of molecular beams for the study of the kinetics of surface reactions relevant to practical applications.

Nanostructures of diverse chemical nature are used as biomarkers, therapeutics, catalysts, and structural reinforcements. The decoration with surfactants has a long history and is essential to introduce specific functions. The definition of surfactants in this review is very broad, following its lexical meaning “surface active agents”, and therefore includes traditional alkyl modifiers, biological ligands, polymers, and other surface active molecules. The review systematically covers covalent and non-covalent interactions of such surfactants with various types of nanomaterials, including metals, oxides, layered materials, and polymers as well as their applications. The major themes are (i) molecular recognition and noncovalent assembly mechanisms of surfactants on the nanoparticle and nanocrystal surfaces, (ii) covalent grafting techniques and multi-step surface modification, (iii) dispersion properties and surface reactions, (iv) the use of surfactants to influence crystal growth, as well as (v) the incorporation of biorecognition and other material-targeting functionality. For the diverse materials classes, similarities and differences in surfactant assembly, function, as well as materials performance in specific applications are described in a comparative way. Major factors that lead to differentiation are the surface energy, surface chemistry and pH sensitivity, as well as the degree of surface regularity and defects in the nanoparticle cores and in the surfactant shell. The review covers a broad range of surface modifications and applications in biological recognition and therapeutics, sensors, nanomaterials for catalysis, energy conversion and storage, the dispersion properties of nanoparticles in structural composites and cement, as well as purification systems and classical detergents. Design principles for surfactants to optimize the performance of specific nanostructures are discussed. The review concludes with challenges and opportunities.

Within the last decade powerful methods have been developed to study surfaces using bright low-energy positron beams. These novel analysis tools exploit the unique properties of positron interaction with surfaces, which comprise the absence of exchange interaction, repulsive crystal potential and positron trapping in delocalized surface states at low energies. By applying reflection high-energy positron diffraction (RHEPD) one can benefit from the phenomenon of total reflection below a critical angle that is not present in electron surface diffraction. Therefore, RHEPD allows the determination of the atom positions of (reconstructed) surfaces with outstanding accuracy. The main advantages of positron annihilation induced Auger-electron spectroscopy (PAES) are the missing secondary electron background in the energy region of Auger-transitions and its topmost layer sensitivity for elemental analysis. In order to enable the investigation of the electron polarization at surfaces low-energy spin-polarized positrons are used to probe the outermost electrons of the surface. Furthermore, in fundamental research the preparation of well defined surfaces tailored for the production of bound leptonic systems plays an outstanding role. In this report, it is envisaged to cover both the fundamental aspects of positron surface interaction and the present status of surface studies using modern positron beam techniques.

This review discusses modern developments in CO2 surface chemistry by focusing on the work published since the original review by H.J. Freund and M.W. Roberts two decades ago (Surface Science Reports 25 (1996) 225–273). It includes relevant fundamentals pertaining to the topics covered in that earlier review, such as conventional metal and metal oxide surfaces and CO2 interactions thereon. While UHV spectroscopy has routinely been applied for CO2 gas–solid interface analysis, the present work goes further by describing surface–CO2 interactions under elevated CO2 pressure on non-oxide surfaces, such as zeolites, sulfides, carbides and nitrides. Furthermore, it describes additional salient in situ techniques relevant to the resolution of the interfacial chemistry of CO2, notably infrared spectroscopy and state-of-the-art theoretical methods, currently used in the resolution of solid and soluble carbonate species in liquid–water vapor, liquid–solid and liquid–liquid interfaces. These techniques are directly relevant to fundamental, natural and technological settings, such as heterogeneous and environmental catalysis and CO2 sequestration.

Titanates are salts of polytitanic acid that can be synthesized as nanostructures in a great variety concerning crystallinity, morphology, size, metal content and surface chemistry. Titanate nanotubes (open-ended hollow cylinders measuring up to 200 nm in length and 15 nm in outer diameter) and nanowires (solid, elongated rectangular blocks with length up to 1500 nm and 30–60 nm diameter) are the most widespread representatives of the titanate nanomaterial family. This review covers the properties and applications of these two materials from the surface science point of view. Dielectric, vibrational, electron and X-ray spectroscopic results are comprehensively discussed first, then surface modification methods including covalent functionalization, ion exchange and metal loading are covered. The versatile surface chemistry of one-dimensional titanates renders them excellent candidates for heterogeneous catalytic, photocatalytic, photovoltaic and energy storage applications, therefore, these fields are also reviewed.

The accepted image of muscovite mica is that of an inert and atomically smooth surface, easily prepared by cleavage in an ambient atmosphere. Consequently, mica is extensively used a model substrate in many fundamental studies of surface phenomena and as a substrate for AFM imaging of biomolecules. In this review we present evidence from the literature that the above picture is not quite correct. The mica used in experimental work is almost invariably cleaved in laboratory air, where a reaction between the mica surface, atmospheric CO2 and water occurs immediately after cleavage. The evidence suggests very strongly that as a result the mica surface becomes covered by up to one formula unit of K2CO3 per nm2, which is mobile under humid conditions, and crystallises under drier conditions. The properties of mica in air or water vapour cannot be fully understood without reference to the surface K2CO3, and many studies of the structure of adsorbed water on mica surfaces may need to be revisited. With this new insight, however, the air-cleaved mica should provide exciting opportunities to study phenomena such as two-dimensional ion diffusion, electrolyte effects on surface conductivity, and two-dimensional crystal nucleation.

In the past decade there have been many theoretical and experimental efforts to study the mechanisms of solid state dewetting, that means the spontaneous agglomeration of a thin solid film on a substrate into an assembly of 3D islands. The dewetting studies of solid films on solid substrates have not yet reached the degree of maturity achieved for liquids but there is now enough experimental data to consider the possibility of a future “dewetting engineering”. By dewetting engineering we mean all the ways to tune and/or control the kinetics of dewetting as well as the morphology of the final dewetted state. The ultimate goal is to avoid dewetting when it complicates the fabrication of thin film-based devices or to use it for the spontaneous production of an assembly of nanoscaled islands on solid substrates. For this purpose we review the different parameters that influence the dewetting then illustrate how the dewetted state may be tuned by varying the thickness of the film, the annealing temperature, or the state of strain in the film. Moreover, adsorbed or absorbed species (by deposition or ionic impingement/ion bombardment) may modify the surface properties of the film or the mobility properties of the contact line film/substrate and thus the dewetting properties. Anisotropic properties of the film may also be used to initiate the dewetting from perfectly oriented edge fronts, leading to highly ordered 3D islands. New approaches using substrate pre-patterning or film patterning are very promising to achieve the dewetting engineering. Ideal systems for studying solid state dewetting are single crystalline films deposited or bonded on amorphous substrates, so that, among the numerous dewetting systems reported in the literature, ultra-thin crystalline silicon-on-insulator (SOI) film (a Si film bonded on an amorphous SiO2 substrate) is considered as a model system for studying how to control solid state dewetting. Other systems, as Ni epitaxially grown on MgO, are also used to illustrate the different approaches for a “dewetting engineering”.

Catalyst synthesis with precise control over the structure of catalytic active sites at the atomic level is of essential importance for the scientific understanding of reaction mechanisms and for rational design of advanced catalysts with high performance. Such precise control is achievable using atomic layer deposition (ALD). ALD is similar to chemical vapor deposition (CVD), except that the deposition is split into a sequence of two self-limiting surface reactions between gaseous precursor molecules and a substrate. The unique self-limiting feature of ALD allows conformal deposition of catalytic materials on a high surface area catalyst support at the atomic level. The deposited catalytic materials can be precisely constructed on the support by varying the number and type of ALD cycles. As an alternative to the wet-chemistry based conventional methods, ALD provides a cycle-by-cycle “bottom-up” approach for nanostructuring supported catalysts with near atomic precision. In this review, we summarize recent attempts to synthesize supported catalysts with ALD. Nucleation and growth of metals by ALD on oxides and carbon materials for precise synthesis of supported monometallic catalyst are reviewed. The capability of achieving precise control over the particle size of monometallic nanoparticles by ALD is emphasized. The resulting metal catalysts with high dispersions and uniformity often show comparable or remarkably higher activity than those prepared by conventional methods. For supported bimetallic catalyst synthesis, we summarize the strategies for controlling the deposition of the secondary metal selectively on the primary metal nanoparticle but not on the support to exclude monometallic formation. As a review of the surface chemistry and growth behavior of metal ALD on metal surfaces, we demonstrate the ways to precisely tune size, composition and structure of bimetallic metal nanoparticles. The cycle-by-cycle “bottom up” construction of bimetallic (or multiple components) nanoparticles with near atomic precision on supports by ALD is illustrated. Applying metal oxide ALD over metal nanoparticles can be used to precisely synthesize nanostructured metal catalysts. In this part, the surface chemistry of Al2O3 ALD on metals is specifically reviewed. Next, we discuss the methods of tailoring the catalytic performance of metal catalysts including activity, selectivity and stability, through selective blocking of the low-coordination sites of metal nanoparticles, the confinement effect, and the formation of new metal-oxide interfaces. Synthesis of supported metal oxide catalysts with high dispersions and “bottom up” nanostructured photocatalytic architectures are also included. Therein, the surface chemistry and morphology of oxide ALD on oxides and carbon materials as well as their catalytic performance are summarized.

The current efficiency of various photocatalytic processes is limited by the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs in the photocatalyst as well as the back-reaction of intermediate species. This review concentrates on the use of ferroelectric polarization to mitigate electron–hole recombination and back-reactions and therefore improve photochemical reactivity. Ferroelectric materials are considered as wide band gap polarizable semiconductors. Depending on the surface polarization, different regions of the surface experience different extents of band bending and promote different carriers to move to spatially different locations. This can lead to some interesting interactions at the surface such as spatially selective adsorption and surface redox reactions. This introductory review covers the fundamental properties of ferroelectric materials, effect of an internal electric field/polarization on charge carrier separation, effect of the polarization on the surface photochemistry and reviews the work done on the use of these ferroelectric materials for photocatalytic applications such as dye degradation and water splitting. The manipulation of photogenerated charge carriers through an internal electric field/surface polarization is a promising strategy for the design of improved photocatalysts.

Metal–oxide interfaces play a fundamental role in determining the functional properties of artificial layered heterostructures, which are at the root of present and future technological applications. Magnetic exchange and magnetoelectric coupling, spin filtering, metal passivation, catalytic activity of oxide-supported nano-particles are just few examples of physical and chemical processes arising at metal–oxide hybrid systems, readily exploited in working devices. These phenomena are strictly correlated with the chemical and structural characteristics of the metal–oxide interfacial region, making a thorough understanding of the atomistic mechanisms responsible of its formation a prerequisite in order to tailor the device properties. The steep compositional gradient established upon formation of metal–oxide heterostructures drives strong chemical interactions at the interface, making the metal–oxide boundary region a complex system to treat, both from an experimental and a theoretical point of view. However, once properly mastered, interfacial chemical interactions offer a further degree of freedom for tuning the material properties. The goal of the present review is to provide a summary of the latest achievements in the understanding of metal/oxide and oxide/metal layered systems characterized by reactive interfaces. The influence of the interface composition on the structural, electronic and magnetic properties will be highlighted. Particular emphasis will be devoted to the discussion of ultra-thin epitaxial oxides stabilized on highly oxidizable metals, which have been rarely exploited as oxide supports as compared to the much more widespread noble and quasi noble metallic substrates. In this frame, an extensive discussion is devoted to the microscopic characterization of interfaces between epitaxial metal oxides and the Fe(001) substrate, regarded from the one hand as a prototypical ferromagnetic material and from the other hand as a highly oxidizable metal.

The fascinating particle size dependence to the physical, photophysical, and chemical properties of gold has motivated thousands of studies focused on exploring the ability of supported gold nanoparticles to catalyze chemical transformations. In particular, titanium dioxide-supported gold (Au/TiO2) nanoparticles may provide the right combination of electronic structure, structural dynamics, and stability to affect catalysis in important practical applications from environmental remediation to selective hydrogenation to carbon monoxide oxidation. Harnessing the full potential of Au/TiO2 will require a detailed atomic-scale understanding of the thermal and photolytic processes that accompany chemical conversion. This review describes some of the unique properties exhibited by particulate gold before delving into how those properties affect chemistry on titania supports. Particular attention is given first to thermally driven reactions on single crystal system. This review then addresses nanoparticulate samples in an effort begin to bridge the so-called materials gap. Building on the foundation provided by the large body of work in the field of thermal catalysis, the review describes new research into light-driven catalysis on Au/TiO2. Importantly, the reader should bear in mind throughout this review that thermal chemistry and thermal effects typically accompany photochemistry. Distinguishing between thermally-driven stages of a reaction and photo-induced steps remains a significant challenge, but one that experimentalists and theorists are beginning to decipher with new approaches. Finally, a summary of several state-of-the-art studies describes how they are illuminating new frontiers in the quest to exploit Au/TiO2 as an efficient catalyst and low-energy photocatalyst.

The current status of knowledge regarding the surfaces of the iron oxides, magnetite (Fe3O4), maghemite (γ-Fe2O3), haematite (α-Fe2O3), and wüstite (Fe1−xO) is reviewed. The paper starts with a summary of applications where iron oxide surfaces play a major role, including corrosion, catalysis, spintronics, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), biomedicine, photoelectrochemical water splitting and groundwater remediation. The bulk structure and properties are then briefly presented; each compound is based on a close-packed anion lattice, with a different distribution and oxidation state of the Fe cations in interstitial sites. The bulk defect chemistry is dominated by cation vacancies and interstitials (not oxygen vacancies) and this provides the context to understand iron oxide surfaces, which represent the front line in reduction and oxidation processes. Fe diffuses in and out from the bulk in response to the O2 chemical potential, forming sometimes complex intermediate phases at the surface. For example, α-Fe2O3 adopts Fe3O4-like surfaces in reducing conditions, and Fe3O4 adopts Fe1−xO-like structures in further reducing conditions still. It is argued that known bulk defect structures are an excellent starting point in building models for iron oxide surfaces. The atomic-scale structure of the low-index surfaces of iron oxides is the major focus of this review. Fe3O4 is the most studied iron oxide in surface science, primarily because its stability range corresponds nicely to the ultra-high vacuum environment. It is also an electrical conductor, which makes it straightforward to study with the most commonly used surface science methods such as photoemission spectroscopies (XPS, UPS) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The impact of the surfaces on the measurement of bulk properties such as magnetism, the Verwey transition and the (predicted) half-metallicity is discussed. The best understood iron oxide surface at present is probably Fe3O4(100); the structure is known with a high degree of precision and the major defects and properties are well characterised. A major factor in this is that a termination at the Feoct–O plane can be reproducibly prepared by a variety of methods, as long as the surface is annealed in 10−7−10−5 mbar O2 in the final stage of preparation. Such straightforward preparation of a monophase termination is generally not the case for iron oxide surfaces. All available evidence suggests the oft-studied (√2×√2)R45° reconstruction results from a rearrangement of the cation lattice in the outermost unit cell in which two octahedral cations are replaced by one tetrahedral interstitial, a motif conceptually similar to well-known Koch–Cohen defects in Fe1−xO. The cation deficiency results in Fe11O16 stoichiometry, which is in line with the chemical potential in ultra-high vacuum (UHV), which is close to the border between the Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 phases. The Fe3O4(111) surface is also much studied, but two different surface terminations exist close in energy and can coexist, which makes sample preparation and data interpretation somewhat tricky. Both the Fe3O4(100) and Fe3O4(111) surfaces exhibit Fe-rich terminations as the sample selvedge becomes reduced. The Fe3O4(110) surface forms a one-dimensional (1×3) reconstruction linked to nanofaceting, which exposes the more stable Fe3O4(111) surface. α-Fe2O3(0001) is the most studied haematite surface, but difficulties preparing stoichiometric surfaces under UHV conditions have hampered a definitive determination of the structure. There is evidence for at least three terminations: a bulk-like termination at the oxygen plane, a termination with half of the cation layer, and a termination with ferryl groups. When the surface is reduced the so-called “bi-phase” structure is formed, which eventually transforms to a Fe3O4(111)-like termination. The structure of the bi-phase surface is controversial; a largely accepted model of coexisting Fe1−xO and α-Fe2O3(0001) islands was recently challenged and a new structure based on a thin film of Fe3O4(111) on α-Fe2O3(0001) was proposed. The merits of the competing models are discussed. The α-Fe2O3(11¯ 02) “R-cut” surface is recommended as an excellent prospect for future study given its apparent ease of preparation and its prevalence in nanomaterial. In the latter sections the literature regarding adsorption on iron oxides is reviewed. First, the adsorption of molecules (H2, H2O, CO, CO2, O2, HCOOH, CH3OH, CCl4, CH3I, C6H6, SO2, H2S, ethylbenzene, styrene, and Alq3) is discussed, and an attempt is made to relate this information to the reactions in which iron oxides are utilized as a catalyst (water–gas shift, Fischer–Tropsch, dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene) or catalyst supports (CO oxidation). The known interactions of iron oxide surfaces with metals are described, and it is shown that the behaviour is determined by whether the metal forms a stable ternary phase with the iron oxide. Those that do not, (e.g. Au, Pt, Ag, Pd) prefer to form three-dimensional particles, while the remainder (Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, V, Cu, Ti, Zr, Sn, Li, K, Na, Ca, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca) incorporate within the oxide lattice. The incorporation temperature scales with the heat of formation of the most stable metal oxide. A particular effort is made to underline the mechanisms responsible for the extraordinary thermal stability of isolated metal adatoms on Fe3O4 surfaces, and the potential application of this model system to understand single atom catalysis and sub-nano cluster catalysis is discussed. The review ends with a brief summary, and a perspective is offered including exciting lines of future research.

Understanding the bio-physical–chemical interactions at nanostructured biointerfaces and the assembly mechanisms of so-called hybrid nano-composites is nowadays a key issue for nanoscience in view of the many possible applications foreseen. The contribution of surface science in this field is noteworthy since, using a bottom-up approach, it allows the investigation of the fundamental processes at the basis of complex interfacial phenomena and thus it helps to unravel the elementary mechanisms governing them. Nowadays it is well demonstrated that a wide variety of different molecular assemblies can form upon adsorption of small biomolecules at surfaces. The geometry of such self-organized structures can often be tuned by a careful control of the experimental conditions during the deposition process. Indeed an impressive number of studies exists (both experimental and – to a lesser extent – theoretical), which demonstrates the ability of molecular self-assembly to create different structural motifs in a more or less predictable manner, by tuning the molecular building blocks as well as the metallic substrate. In this frame, amino acids and small peptides at surfaces are key, basic, systems to be studied. The amino acids structure is simple enough to serve as a model for the chemisorption of biofunctional molecules, but their adsorption at surfaces has applications in surface functionalization, in enantiospecific catalysis, biosensing, shape control of nanoparticles or in emerging fields such as “green” corrosion inhibition. In this paper we review the most recent advances in this field. We shall start from the adsorption of amino acids at metal surfaces and we will evolve then in the direction of more complex systems, in the light of the latest improvements of surface science techniques and of computational methods. On one side, we will focus on amino acids adsorption at oxide surfaces, on the other on peptide adsorption both at metal and oxide substrates. Particular attention will be drawn to the added value provided by the combination of several experimental surface science techniques and to the precious contribution of advanced complementary computational methods to resolve the details of systems of increased complexity. Finally, some hints on experiments performed in presence of water and then characterized in UHV and on the related theoretical work will be presented. This is a further step towards a better approximation of real biological systems. However, since the methods employed are often not typical of surface science, this topic is not developed in detail.

Molybdenum disulfide, MoS2, has recently gained considerable attention as a layered material where neighboring layers are only weakly interacting and can easily slide against each other. Therefore, mechanical exfoliation allows the fabrication of single and multi-layers and opens the possibility to generate atomically thin crystals with outstanding properties. In contrast to graphene, it has an optical gap of ~1.9 eV. This makes it a prominent candidate for transistor and opto-electronic applications. Single-layer MoS2 exhibits remarkably different physical properties compared to bulk MoS2 due to the absence of interlayer hybridization. For instance, while the band gap of bulk and multi-layer MoS2 is indirect, it becomes direct with decreasing number of layers. In this review, we analyze from a theoretical point of view the electronic, optical, and vibrational properties of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS2. In particular, we focus on the effects of spin–orbit interaction, number of layers, and applied tensile strain on the vibrational and optical properties. We examine the results obtained by different methodologies, mainly ab initio approaches. We also discuss which approximations are suitable for MoS2 and layered materials. The effect of external strain on the band gap of single-layer MoS2 and the crossover from indirect to direct band gap is investigated. We analyze the excitonic effects on the absorption spectra. The main features, such as the double peak at the absorption threshold and the high-energy exciton are presented. Furthermore, we report on the the phonon dispersion relations of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS2. Based on the latter, we explain the behavior of the Raman-active A1g and E2g1 modes as a function of the number of layers. Finally, we compare theoretical and experimental results of Raman, photoluminescence, and optical-absorption spectroscopy.

This review covers the surface chemistry of porphyrins, phthalocyanines, their metal complexes, and related compounds, with particular focus on chemical reactions at solid/vacuum interfaces. Porphyrins are not only important biomolecules, they also find, together with the artificial phthalocyanines, numerous technological and scientific applications, which often involve surface and interface related aspects. After a brief summary of fundamental properties of these molecules in the context of surface science, the following topics will be discussed: (1) Aspects of geometric structure, including self-assembly, conformation, mobility and manipulation of the adsorbed molecules. (2) Surface-related changes of the electronic structure and the magnetic properties. (3) The role of the metal center in the surface chemical bond. (4) On-surface coordination reactions, such as direct metalation and coordination of axial ligands. (5) The influence of axial ligands on the surface chemical bond and the magnetic properties.

Recently, pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technology makes viable the epitaxial growth of group III-nitrides on thermally active substrates at low temperature. The precursors generated from the pulsed laser ablating the target has enough kinetic energy when arriving at substrates, thereby effectively suppressing the interfacial reactions between the epitaxial films and the substrates, and eventually makes the film growth at low temperature possible. So far, high-quality group III-nitride epitaxial films have been successfully grown on a variety of thermally active substrates by PLD. By combining PLD with other technologies such as laser rastering technique, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), III-nitride-based light-emitting diode (LED) structures have been realized on different thermally active substrates, with high-performance LED devices being demonstrated. This review focuses on the epitaxial growth of group III-nitrides on thermally active substrates by PLD and their use in the development of LED devices. The surface morphology, interfacial property between film and substrate, and crystalline quality of as-grown group III-nitride films by PLD, are systematically reviewed. The corresponding solutions for film homogeneity on large size substrates, defect control, and InGaN films growth by PLD are also discussed in depth, together with introductions to some newly developed technologies for PLD in order to realize LED structures, which provides great opportunities for commercialization of LEDs on thermally active substrates.

The oxidation and corrosion of metals are fundamental problems in materials science and technology that have been studied using a large variety of experimental and computational techniques. Here we review some of the recent studies that have led to significant advances in our atomic-level understanding of copper oxide, one of the most studied and best understood metal oxides. We show that a good atomistic understanding of the physical characteristics of cuprous (Cu2O) and cupric (CuO) oxide and of some key processes of their formation has been obtained. Indeed, the growth of the oxide has been shown to be epitaxial with the surface and to proceed, in most cases, through the formation of oxide nano-islands which, with continuous oxygen exposure, grow and eventually coalesce. We also show how electronic structure calculations have become increasingly useful in helping to characterise the structures and energetics of various Cu oxide surfaces. However a number of challenges remain. For example, it is not clear under which conditions the oxidation of copper in air at room temperature (known as native oxidation) leads to the formation of a cuprous oxide film only, or also of a cupric overlayer. Moreover, the atomistic details of the nucleation of the oxide islands are still unknown. We close our review with a brief perspective on future work and discuss how recent advances in experimental techniques, bringing greater temporal and spatial resolution, along with improvements in the accuracy, realism and timescales achievable with computational approaches make it possible for these questions to be answered in the near future.

In recent years, the field of catalysis has experienced an astonishing transformation, driven in part by more demanding environmental standards and critical societal and industrial needs such as the search for alternative energy sources. Thanks to the advent of nanotechnology, major steps have been made towards the rational design of novel catalysts. Striking new catalytic properties, including greatly enhanced reactivities and selectivities, have been reported for nanoparticle (NP) catalysts as compared to their bulk counterparts. However, in order to harness the power of these nanocatalysts, a detailed understanding of the origin of their enhanced performance is needed. The present review focuses on the role of the NP size and shape on chemisorption and catalytic performance. Since homogeneity in NP size and shape is a prerequisite for the understanding of structure–reactivity correlations, we first review different synthesis methods that result in narrow NP size distributions and shape controlled NPs. Next, size-dependent phenomena which influence the chemical reactivity of NPs, including quantum size-effects and the presence of under-coordinated surface atoms are examined. The effect of the NP shape on catalytic performance is discussed and explained based on the existence of different atomic structures on the NP surface with distinct chemisorption properties. The influence of additional factors, such as the oxidation state of the NPs and NP–support interactions, is also considered in the frame of the size- and shape-dependency that these phenomena present. Ultimately, our review highlights the importance of achieving a systematic understanding of the factors that control the activity and selectivity of a catalyst in order to avoid trial and error methods in the rational design of the new generation of nanocatalysts with properties tunable at the atomic level.

Among nanoalloys, Co–Pt type (CoPt or FePt) supported nanostructures are very interesting systems due to the direct link between atom arrangement and magnetic behavior. In addition, these alloys become model systems in the field of nanoalloys, due to the diversity of atom arrangements either present in the bulk state or specific to the nanoscale (chemically ordered L10, L12, or disordered fcc structures, core–shell, five-fold structures – icosahedral or decahedral, etc.). The synergy between experimental and modeling efforts has allowed the emergence of an overview of the structural, morphological and chemical behaviors of CoPt-based supported nanoparticles in terms of phase diagrams (temperature, composition, size effect), kinetic behavior (growth, annealing, ordering), and also in terms of environment effects (substrate, capping, matrix, gas) and of magnetic properties. All aspects of this complexity are reviewed: synthesis strategies (physical deposition, cluster beam deposition and wet chemical methods), magnetic behavior (atomic magnetic moment, magnetic anisotropy energy), structural transitions (non-crystalline/crystalline structures, order/disorder, surface/interface segregation), etc. In this field, the investigation techniques, such as electron microscopy and X-ray scattering or absorption techniques, are generally used at their ultimate limit due the small size of the studied objects. Finally, several aspects of the annealing process, which is a key phenomenon to achieve the chemical order, have been discussed in both thermodynamic and kinetic points of view (size effect, critical temperature, annealing time, twinning, coalescence, etc.).

Nanostructured materials offer the possibility to tailor light–matter interaction at scales below the wavelength. Metallic nanostructures benefit from the excitation of surface plasmons that permit light concentration at ultrasmall length scales and ultrafast time scales. The local density of states (LDOS) is a central concept that drives basic processes of light–matter interaction such as spontaneous emission, thermal emission and absorption. We introduce theoretically the concept of LDOS, emphasizing the specificities of plasmonics. We connect the LDOS to real observables in nanophotonics, and show how the concept can be generalized to account for spatial coherence. We describe recent methods developed to probe or map the LDOS in complex nanostructures ranging from nanoantennas to disordered metal surfaces, based on dynamic fluorescence measurements or on the detection of thermal radiation.

This review covers the structure of, and chemical reactions on, well-defined cerium oxide surfaces. Ceria, or mixed oxides containing ceria, are critical components in automotive three-way catalysts due to their well-known oxygen storage capacity. Ceria is also emerging as an important material in a number of other catalytic processes, particularly those involving organic oxygenates and the water–gas shift reaction. Ceria׳s acid–base properties, and thus its catalytic behavior, are closely related to its surface structure where different oxygen anion and cerium cation environments are present on the low-index structural faces. The actual structure of these various faces has been the focus of a number of theoretical and experimental investigations. Ceria is also easily reducible from CeO2 to CeO2−X. The presence of oxygen vacancies on the surface often dramatically alters the adsorption and subsequent reactions of various adsorbates, either on a clean surface or on metal particles supported on the surface. Most surface science studies have been conducted on the surfaces of thin-films rather than on the surfaces of bulk single crystal oxides. The growth, characterization and properties of these thin-films are also examined.

This review covers a wide range of surface analytical techniques: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning photoelectron microscopy (SPEM), photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM), dynamic and static secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), atomic force microscopy (AFM). Others that are relatively less widely used but are also important to the Earth Sciences are also included: Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), low energy electron diffraction (LEED) and scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM). All these techniques probe only the very top sample surface layers (sub-nm to several tens of nm). In addition, we also present several other techniques i.e. Raman microspectroscopy, reflection infrared (IR) microspectroscopy and quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) that penetrate deeper into the sample, up to several μm, as all of them are fundamental analytical tools for the Earth Sciences. Grazing incidence synchrotron techniques, sensitive to surface measurements, are also briefly introduced at the end of this review. (Scanning) transmission electron microscopy (TEM/STEM) is a special case that can be applied to characterisation of mineralogical and geological sample surfaces. Since TEM/STEM is such an important technique for Earth Scientists, we have also included it to draw attention to the capability of TEM/STEM applied as a surface-equivalent tool. While this review presents most of the important techniques for the Earth Sciences, it is not an all-inclusive bibliography of those analytical techniques. Instead, for each technique that is discussed, we first give a very brief introduction about its principle and background, followed by a short section on approaches to sample preparation that are important for researchers to appreciate prior to the actual sample analysis. We then use examples from publications (and also some of our known unpublished results) within the Earth Sciences to show how each technique is applied and used to obtain specific information and to resolve real problems, which forms the central theme of this review. Although this review focuses on applications of these techniques to study mineralogical and geological samples, we also anticipate that researchers from other research areas such as Material and Environmental Sciences may benefit from this review.

Stress and strain originating from mesoscopic misfit at interfaces can have diverse effects on the properties of surfaces and nanostructures thereon. We review the sources and consequences of mesoscopic misfit at metallic surfaces and elucidate various ways in which it affects growth, morphology, electronic properties and magnetism of thin films in early stages of epitaxy and epitaxial nanostructures.

This review introduces hydrogen depth profiling by nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) via the resonant 1H(15N,αγ)12C reaction as a versatile method for the highly depth-resolved observation of hydrogen (H) at solid surfaces and interfaces. The technique is quantitative, non-destructive, and readily applied to a large variety of materials. Its fundamentals, instrumental requirements, advantages and limitations are described in detail, and its main performance benchmarks in terms of depth resolution and sensitivity are compared to those of elastic recoil detection (ERD) as a competing method. The wide range of 1H(15N,αγ)12C NRA applications in research of hydrogen-related phenomena at surfaces and interfaces is reviewed. Special emphasis is placed on the powerful combination of 1H(15N,αγ)12C NRA with surface science techniques of in-situ target preparation and characterization, as the NRA technique is ideally suited to investigate hydrogen interactions with atomically controlled surfaces and intact interfaces. In conjunction with thermal desorption spectroscopy, 15N NRA can assess the thermal stability of absorbed hydrogen species in different depth locations against diffusion and desorption. Hydrogen diffusion dynamics in the near-surface region, including transitions of hydrogen between the surface and the bulk, and between shallow interfaces of nanostructured thin layer stacks can directly be visualized. As a unique feature of 15N NRA, the analysis of Doppler-broadened resonance excitation curves allows for the direct measurement of the zero-point vibrational energy of hydrogen atoms adsorbed on single crystal surfaces.

The 21st century has brought a lot of new results related to graphene. Apparently, graphene has been characterized from all points of view except surface science and, especially, surface thermodynamics. This report aims to close this gap. Since graphene is the first real two-dimensional solid, a general formulation of the thermodynamics of two-dimensional solid bodies is given. The two-dimensional chemical potential tensor coupled with stress tensor is introduced, and fundamental equations are derived for energy, free energy, grand thermodynamic potential (in the classical and hybrid forms), enthalpy, and Gibbs energy. The fundamentals of linear boundary phenomena are formulated with explaining the concept of a dividing line, the mechanical and thermodynamic line tensions, line energy and other linear properties with necessary thermodynamic equations. The one-dimensional analogs of the Gibbs adsorption equation and Shuttleworth–Herring relation are presented. The general thermodynamic relationships are illustrated with calculations based on molecular theory. To make the reader sensible of the harmony of chemical and van der Waals forces in graphene, the remake of the classical graphite theory is presented with additional variable combinations of graphene sheets. The calculation of the line energy of graphene is exhibited including contributions both from chemical bonds and van der Waals forces (expectedly, the latter are considerably smaller than the former). The problem of graphene holes originating from migrating vacancies is discussed on the basis of the Gibbs–Curie principle. An important aspect of line tension is the planar sheet/nanotube transition where line tension acts as a driving force. Using the bending stiffness of graphene, the possible radius range is estimated for achiral (zigzag and armchair) nanotubes.

A sessile drop is an isolated drop which has been deposited on a solid substrate where the wetted area is limited by the three-phase contact line and characterized by contact angle, contact radius and drop height. Although, wetting has been studied using contact angles of drops on solids for more than 200 years, the question remains unanswered: Is wetting of a rough and chemically heterogeneous surface controlled by the interactions within the solid/liquid contact area beneath the droplet or only at the three-phase contact line? After the publications of Pease in 1945, Extrand in 1997, 2003 and Gao and McCarthy in 2007 and 2009, it was proposed that advancing, receding contact angles, and contact angle hysteresis of rough and chemically heterogeneous surfaces are determined by interactions of the liquid and the solid at the three-phase contact line alone and the interfacial area within the contact perimeter is irrelevant. As a consequence of this statement, the well-known Wenzel (1934) and Cassie (1945) equations which were derived using the contact area approach are proposed to be invalid and should be abandoned. A hot debate started in the field of surface science after 2007, between the three-phase contact line and interfacial contact area approach defenders. This paper presents a review of the published articles on contact angles and summarizes the views of the both sides. After presenting a brief history of the contact angles and their measurement methods, we discussed the basic contact angle theory and applications of contact angles on the characterization of flat, rough and micropatterned superhydrophobic surfaces. The weak and strong sides of both three-phase contact line and contact area approaches were discussed in detail and some practical conclusions were drawn.

Both density functional theory calculations and numerous experimental studies demonstrate a variety of unique features in metal supported oxide films and transition metal doped simple oxides, which are markedly different from their unmodified counterparts. This review highlights, from the computational perspective, recent literature on the properties of the above mentioned surfaces and how they adsorb and activate different species, support metal aggregates, and even catalyse reactions. The adsorption of Au atoms and clusters on metal-supported MgO films are reviewed together with the cluster׳s theoretically predicted ability to activate and dissociate O2 at the Au–MgO(100)/Ag(100) interface, as well as the impact of an interface vacancy to the binding of an Au atom. In contrast to a bulk MgO surface, an Au atom binds strongly on a metal-supported ultra-thin MgO film and becomes negatively charged. Similarly, Au clusters bind strongly on a supported MgO(100) film and are negatively charged favouring 2D planar structures. The adsorption of other metal atoms is briefly considered and compared to that of Au. Existing computational literature of adsorption and reactivity of simple molecules including O2, CO, NO2, and H2O on mainly metal-supported MgO(100) films is discussed. Chemical reactions such as CO oxidation and O2 dissociation are discussed on the bare thin MgO film and on selected Au clusters supported on MgO(100)/metal surfaces. The Au atoms at the perimeter of the cluster are responsible for catalytic activity and calculations predict that they facilitate dissociative adsorption of oxygen even at ambient conditions. The interaction of H2O with a flat and stepped Ag-supported MgO film is summarized and compared to bulk MgO. The computational results highlight spontaneous dissociation on MgO steps. Furthermore, the impact of water coverage on adsorption and dissociation is addressed. The modifications, such as oxygen vacancies and dopants, at the oxide–metal interface and their effect on the adsorption characteristics of water and Au are summarized. Finally, more limited computational literature on transition metal (TM) doped CaO(100) and MgO(100) surfaces is presented. Again, Au is used as a probe species. Similar to metal-supported MgO films, Au binds more strongly than on undoped CaO(100) and becomes negatively charged. The discussion focuses on rationalization of Au adsorption with the help of Born–Haber cycle, which reveals that the so-called redox energy including the electron transfer from the dopant to the Au atom together with the simultaneous structural relaxation of lattice atoms is responsible for enhanced binding. In addition, adsorption energy dependence on the position and type of the dopant is summarized.

We have summarized recent ultrafast spectroscopic studies on phenomena associated with dye-sensitization of semiconductor metal oxide nanoparticles, especially TiO2 nanocrystalline film from a surface science perspective with a strong relation to mechanism of electron injection in dye-sensitized solar cells, which are attracting much interest from both viewpoints of pure science and applied science. A lot of chemical and physical processes are involved in this solar cell, such as light harvesting by molecules and nanostructures, interfacial electron transfer, charge migration in solid and electrolyte, degradation of the materials, and so on. Among them, the very primary process initiated by photoabsorption by sensitizing dye molecules; that is, electron injection from excited adsorbates into the conduction band of semiconductor metal oxides is significantly important, because this process must be 100% efficient with a minimum driving force for high current and voltage generation. We have first focused on details of experimental methods used in this research area, and then in the following Sections, have organized this review by concentrating on each parameter that influences dynamics of electron injection in dye-sensitized semiconductors. Finally we have emphasized it is important to measure actual DSSCs for the precise comparison between electron injection dynamics and device performance.

Adsorption of hydrogen and hydrocarbon molecules on semiconductor surfaces plays a key role in surface science and technology. Most studies have employed silicon (Si) as a substrate because of its paramount technological importance and scientific interest. However, other semiconductor substrates are gaining an increasing interest as well. Silicon carbide (SiC), which is a material with very special properties allowing developments of novel devices and applications, offers particularly fascinating new degrees of freedom for exceptional adsorption behaviour. For example, a very unusual hydrogen-induced metallization of a SiC(001) surface has been reported and hydrogen molecules show very different adsorption behaviour on different SiC(001) reconstructions although the latter exhibit very similar surface dimers. In marked contrast to the Si(001) surface, the adsorption of hydrocarbon molecules on SiC(001) can yield structurally well-defined adlayers in favourable cases which may have large potential for organic functionalization. We review and discuss theoretical ab initio results on conceivable adsorption scenarios of atomic and molecular hydrogen as well as acetylene, ethylene, butadiene, benzene and cyclohexadiene on various reconstructions of the SiC(001) surface. The main emphasize is on a detailed understanding of these adsorption systems and on identifying the physical origin of the particular adsorption behaviour. The results will be discussed in the light of related adsorption events on the Si(001) surface and in comparison with available experimental data.

Second harmonic generation (SHG) and sum frequency spectroscopy (SFS) have provided unique opportunities to probe surfaces and interfaces. They have found broad applications in many disciplines of science and technology. In recent years, there has been significant progress in the development of SHG/SFS technology that has significantly broadened the applications of SHG and SFS. In this article, we review the recent progress of the field with emphasis on SFS.

There are a wide variety of silica nanoformulations being investigated for biomedical applications. Silica nanoparticles can be produced using a wide variety of synthetic techniques with precise control over their physical and chemical characteristics. Inorganic nanoformulations are often criticized or neglected for their poor tolerance; however, extensive studies into silica nanoparticle biodistributions and toxicology have shown that silica nanoparticles may be well tolerated, and in some case are excreted or are biodegradable. Robust synthetic techniques have allowed silica nanoparticles to be developed for applications such as biomedical imaging contrast agents, ablative therapy sensitizers, and drug delivery vehicles. This review explores the synthetic techniques used to create and modify an assortment of silica nanoformulations, as well as several of the diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

This review provides theoretical understanding of the role of the surface and interface in the thermal conductivity of solids. An attempt is made to collect the various methods used in the analysis of experiments. The adequacy and range of validity of these methods are evaluated, and suggestions are made concerning possible theoretical and experimental investigations which seem desirable. A major part of the paper is devoted to the description of the surface vibrational modes, the surface thermal conductivity, the interaction of defects with crystal surfaces, and the phonon scattering from crystal surfaces.First, a review is made of the general form of the interatomic potential energy and lattice vibrations. Certain aspects related to the three- and four-phonon processes are discussed. Then, the heat current is calculated in the presence of scattering processes described by a relaxation time, and a general formalism for the lattice thermal conductivity is derived. A special consideration is given to the effect of boundary scattering and boundary thermal conductance. In the first sections, despite the consideration of boundary scattering, the calculation of the thermal conductivity is carried out with adopting of the cyclic boundary conditions. Such a treatment, while mathematically convenient, eliminates the possibility of studying the dynamical properties of atoms in the neighborhood of a free surface of a real crystal because the crystal structure in the surface layers may differ from the structures in the bulk of the crystal. The forces acting on atoms in the surface layers will be different from the forces acting on atoms in the bulk since an atom in the surface layers has fewer nearest neighbors, next-nearest neighbors, etc., than an atom in the interior of a crystal. Therefore, one would expect that the dynamical properties and the resultant thermal conductivity are different for atoms in the surface layers of a crystal than for atoms in the bulk of the crystal. Moreover, when crystal size becomes small enough that the ratio of surface to volume is not negligible, the modification of the frequency distribution function of the crystal by the presence of free surfaces, which is the addition of a contribution from an essentially two-dimensional crystal, will alter the temperature dependence of thermal conductivity and give rise to distinct size effects on the thermal conductivity. Furthermore, selection rules governing physical properties in crystals, which have their origins in symmetry properties, translational and rotational, of an infinitely extended crystal, can be relaxed for finite crystals or for atoms in the surface layers of crystals for which these symmetry properties no longer hold. Thus, one would expect to find that the thermal conductivity of a thin film or small particle will show specific features that do not appear for the case of bulk material. In order to present theoretical understanding of the effect of size and surface contribution to the lattice thermal conductivity, we present in the last sections a theoretical lattice dynamical discussion of the thermal conductivity in which the modification of the lattice vibration by the presence of free boundary surfaces play a dominant role.