Intense immunological dysregulation including immune cell lesions has been characteristically observed in severe cases of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), for which molecular mechanisms are not properly understood. A study of physiological expressions of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) host cell entry-related factors in immune system components may help explain molecular

We aimed to verify the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic cell apoptotic pathways on the inhibition of cellular apoptosis in patients with tropical spastic paralysis/myelopathy related to human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1. The databases accessed were PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science. Neither the time of publishing nor the language of the articles was limited. The descriptors

Immunization with hepatitis B vaccine is an effective measure for prevention and control of hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection. Although lots of efforts to improve the effect of hepatitis B vaccine have been made, the function of human beta defensin 2 (hBD2) on hepatitis B vaccine keeps unclear. In this article, we report that hBD2 not only promoted the activation and maturation of immature dendritic

COVID-19 is an emerging rapidly evolving situation, which is widely disseminated all over the world. During this period, the concept of herd immunity is often mentioned, but it is easily misunderstood. In the context of COVID-19, this article comprehensively expounds the concept and purpose of herd immunity, the necessary conditions for realizing the herd immunity, the restrictive conditions for the

Herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 infection causes cold sores and keratitis. Upon infection, it forms lesions at the epithelium and enters neurons where it establishes a latent infection. Host innate immune receptor Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 recognizes HSV by sensing its glycoproteins and induces an innate immune response. Upon activation, TLR2 forms a dimer with TLR1, TLR2, or TLR6 and signals inducing

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a global health care burden that can lead to chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. We conducted this study to identify the association between interleukin-6 (IL-6) gene rs1800796 (−572G/C) polymorphism and the risk of chronic HBV infection in adults. A total of 1,048 participants including 518 cases and 530 controls were recruited for

An efficient method for detection of foot and mouth disease (FMD) and, particularly, differentiation of vaccinated from infected animals is the use of nonstructural (NS) proteins as antigens in Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Kits. In this study, only epitopic regions of 3AB and 3D NS proteins were used for recombinant protein production, as a cost-effective method instead of peptide synthesis

Several hepatitis B virus (HBV) factors, including viral load, genotype, genome mutations, and cytokine production, have been reported to be associated with different risks of progression of liver disease. The aim of this study was to verify if there is an association among the levels of cytokines (interleukin [IL]-35, IL-6, IL-17A, interferon [IFN]-γ) in the plasma, viral load, and the different genotypes

Chemotherapy-induced immunosuppression can lead to hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation in cancer patients. Both HBV carriers and individuals with serological signs of previously resolved HBV exposure are under the risk of severe hepatitis and liver failure during and after chemotherapy. The objective of this largest retrospective study was to analyze the consequences of HBV status in children receiving

Interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) are transmembrane proteins induced by interferon that can provide broad-spectrum antiviral activities. However, there are few reports on the antiviral activity of monkey-derived IFITMs. In this study, the IFITM1 and IFITM3 genes of African green monkey (AGM) were cloned and overexpressed in Vero cells, followed by infection with mouse norovirus (MNV)

DNA-dependent activator of interferon regulatory factors (DAIs), interferon gamma inducible protein 16 (IFI16), DEAD-box polypeptide 41 (DDX41), DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), meiotic recombination 11 homolog A (MRE11), and cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) have been identified as intracellular STING-dependent DNA sensors in recent years. Studies have shown that the DNA sensor-STING-interferon

Regulatory T cell (Treg) lineage plays a central role in inflammation and autoimmunity control. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) has been described as a pleiotropic cytokine that is mainly released by CD4+ CD25+ FOXP3+ Treg cells and has a potent immunosuppressive activity. Forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) transcription factor expression is crucial for Treg to function as a suppressor cell, and FOXP3 gene single nucleotide

Circoviruses represent a rapidly expanding group of viruses that infect both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Members are responsible for diseases of veterinary and economic importance, including postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome in pigs, and beak and feather disease (BFD) in birds. These viruses are associated with lymphoid depletion and immunosuppressive conditions in infected animals

Emergence of the 2019 novel coronavirus (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2]) and its spread, with life-threatening outcomes, have caused a pandemic burden worldwide. Studies of emerging diseases under outbreak conditions have focused on the complete spectrum of pathogens, transmissibility, shedding kinetics in relation to infectivity, epidemiological causes, and interventions

The spectrum of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) severity, related to cellular immune functions, has not been fully clarified yet. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the alteration of peripheral blood cells in patients with COVID-19. The flow cytometric characterization of immune cell subset was performed on 69 COVID-19 patients and 21 healthy controls. These data were evaluated based on

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) infect a wide range of hosts, including humans and many avian species. Efforts have been made to control this pathogen in chickens using vaccination programs, but that has been met with varying degrees of success. Therefore, identification of more efficacious vaccination strategies is warranted. This study was undertaken to investigate the potential effects of probiotics

The nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling network constitutes a first line of defense against the invading viruses. However, viruses also adopted multiple strategies to interfere with NF-κB activation. Enterovirus 71 (EV71), in the family Picornaviridae, has become the main pathogen responsible for hand, foot, and mouth disease. Recent studies have reported that the nonstructural protein 2C of EV71

COVID-19 is spreading and ravaging all over the world, and the number of deaths is increasing day by day without downward trend. However, there is limited knowledge of pathogenesis on the deterioration of COVID-19 at present. In this study we aim to determine whether cytokine storm is really the chief culprit for the deterioration of COVID-19. The confirmed COVID-19 patients were divided into moderate

Since the end of 2019, the emergence of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has accelerated the research on host immune responses toward the coronaviruses. When there is no approved drug or vaccine to use against these culprits, host immunity is the major strategy to fight such infections. Type I interferons are an integral

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major worldwide problem with the highest incidence rates in Egypt. It affects B cells that serve as reservoirs for persistent HCV, resulting in phenotypic B cell alterations. Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a cytokine with antiviral activity, important for B cell physiology. In addition, B cell-intrinsic toll-like receptor-7 (TLR7) signaling is required for optimal B

Serosurveillance of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is lagging due to concerns regarding testing performance and interpretation of what represents protective immunity. The scientific community has pointed out concerns related to suboptimal performance of certain tests, although a selection of tests with sensitivity and specificity of >99% is available. Neutralizing antibodies represent a generally

While an appropriately regulated production of interferons (IFNs) performs a fundamental role in the defense against coronaviruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), dysregulated overproduction of inflammatory mediators can play an important role in the development of SARS-CoV-2 infection-related complications, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome. As the principal

Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) uses many mechanisms to elude the immune system; one of them is spreading intracellularly, even in the presence of specific antiviral antibodies. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are necessary to eliminate the virus. The main preventive strategy is vaccination based on inactivated virus. These vaccines are poor inducers of cellular immune responses, and complicate serological

Virus replication and host cell growth require host cell metabolic networks to provide energy and precursors for the synthesis of macromolecules. The aim of this study was to investigate the most direct changes in energy metabolism and small-molecule metabolism of Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells infected with H3N2 canine influenza virus (CIV) and to determine whether small metabolites contribute

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a well-known pathogen to establish chronic infection leading to end-stage liver disease. The destruction of liver tissues takes its roots under chronic inflammation and proinflammatory signaling in liver microenvironment. The viral proteins interact with certain pattern recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors, activating the innate immune system to clear the

A Picornavirus (Ljungan virus [LV]) originally found in bank voles has been associated with type 1 diabetes (T1D) in its wild rodent reservoir, but also associated with T1D in a laboratory rat model for the disease, the diabetes prone (DP) Bio Breeding (BB) rat. Successful treatment of diabetes in this rat model, using experimental antiviral compounds directed against picornavirus, has been reported

Peripheral follicular helper T (pTfh) cells represent specialized CD4+ T cells that help B cells to secrete antibodies. Dengue infection appears to cause immune activation in a wide array of immune cells. Herein, we investigated the signatures of immune activation of circulating Tfh cells and mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells in adult subjects with confirmed acute clinical dengue virus (DENV)

We aimed to characterize the contribution of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in perpetuating the cytokine-mediated inflammatory setting related to liver damage in the context of obesity. Herein, serum samples from patients with liver disease were retrospectively analyzed and categorized as normal-weight patients (NW), overweight patients (OW), obese patients (ObP), and high alcohol consumer patients (HAC)

Much uncertainty still exists about the viral etiology of myasthenia gravis (MG). To address this, we explored the relationship between human parvovirus B19 (PVB19) infection and MG by investigating the presence of PVB19-specific antibodies in serum. A total of 131 patients with MG (including 47 with thymoma-associated MG, 14 with hyperplasia-associated MG, and 70 with unknown thymic lesions) and 172

Nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) are a group of large viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, from animals to protists. These viruses are grouped together in NCLDV based on genomic sequence analyses. They share a set of essential genes for virion morphogenesis and replication. Most NCLDVs generally have large physical sizes while their morphologies vary in different families, such as

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a pediatric public health concern in Asia. Surveillance data on the circulating serotypes of HFMD suggest that Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) and coxsackieviruses A6, A10, and A16 (CVA6, CVA10, and CVA16) are the major serotypes causing HFMD. Asian countries, including Korea, are currently developing a multivalent vaccine targeting these serotypes. However, the immunity

Henipaviruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that have recently emerged as zoonotic pathogens, capable of causing severe acute respiratory disease and encephalitis in humans. The prototypical henipaviruses, Hendra henipavirus and Nipah henipavirus, are a major health concern as they have high mortality rates and no currently approved human vaccine or drug therapy. Understanding the mechanisms of viral

Since the WHO declared coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as a pandemic, huge efforts were made to understand the disease, its pathogenesis, and treatment. COVID-19 is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV2), which is closely related to SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This article attempts to provide a timely and comprehensive review of the coronaviruses

The long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), which could bind to target DNA, RNA, or protein, plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of viral replication and disease progression. Exploring how lncRNA regulates HIV infection is crucial for studying the pathogenesis, disease progression, and effective treatment of AIDS. Recently, Kulkarni et al. convincingly provided a molecular basis for association between CCR5AS

Human parvovirus B19 (B19), a human pathogen of the erythroparvovirus genus, is responsible for a variety of diseases. B19 cause less symptoms in healthy individuals, also cause acute and chronic anemia in immunodeficiency patients. Transient aplastic crisis and pure red cell aplasia are two kinds of anemic hemogram, respectively, in acute and chronic B19 infection phase, especially occurring in patients

Pseudorabies (PR) is a highly contagious disease affecting a wide range of animals, which annually causes great economic losses in China. In this study, a total number of 18,815 serum samples and 1,589 tissue samples were collected from 311 intensive pig farms (≥350 sows) located in eight cities in Heilongjiang province, and tested by ELISA and PCR. Overall, the serum positive rates of gE and gB protein

Infectious bronchitis (IB) is a highly contagious viral disease of chickens, known to cause severe economic losses. Vaccination against IB virus (IBV) is an important control measure against the disease. The objective of the present study was to test Avishield IB GI-13, the vaccine candidate against IBV, strain V-173/11 (GI-13 genotype), according to European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) efficacy requirements

Genotype 2 strains of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV-2) have been reported sporadically in Europe. Even if, PRRSV-2 reported to be genetically homogenous in Europe due to the introduction of an MLV vaccine strain, independent introductions of PRRSV-2 field strains have been reported. The aim of the present study was to report the complete genome sequence and evaluate the

To this day, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has not shown signs of abating. Moreover, the virus responsible for the pandemic, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, has evolved into three different variants. This phenomenon highlights an even greater need to develop drugs and vaccines to control the rate of infection and spread of the disease. As of July 7, 2020, at least

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) is described by four primary diagnoses, diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, and cystic kidney disease, all of which have viruses implicated as causative agents. Enteroviruses, such as coxsackievirus (CV), are a common genus of viruses that have been implicated in both diabetes and cystic kidney disease; however, little is known about how CVs cause kidney injury

Pakistan is ranked second highest after Egypt in hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Accurate typing is mandatory to be compliant with the World Health Organization strategy to eliminate HCV infection in 2030. We characterized the HCV genotypes using Abbott real-time polymerase chain reaction assay and indeterminate samples were sequenced. We also investigated the distribution of HCV genotype among

The clinical outcome of dengue is due to a complex interplay between dengue virus (DENV) and host immune factors, including complement and cytokine systems. Proinflammatory cytokines are mainly produced by monocytes in response to infectious pathogens. This study investigated the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and IL-12 in

Salmonella is among the most serious of foodborne pathogens worldwide and distributed widely in the natural environment; in addition, it has caused severe medical problems and foodborne diseases. Bacterial biofilm was the multicellular community of microorganisms that attached to nonbiological and biological surfaces. Phages and their derivatives are ideal candidates for replacing and compensating

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a noncytopathic virus and billions of HBV-infected patients live uneventful lives and do not suffer from notable liver damage. However, HBV also causes progressive liver diseases characterized by hepatic inflammation, hepatic fibrosis, and liver cancer in millions of HBV-infected patients. The goal of this study was to evaluate the role of mutant HBV in HBV pathogenesis.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global pandemic in 2020. The pathogen responsible for the COVID-19 has been found to be coronavirus (2019-nCoV) with human transmission through droplets, airway secretions, and even direct contact with host. Currently multiple drugs and their combinations are being tried for the treatment of the COVID-19 disease, but none approved. In absence of definitive

The circulation of flaviviruses, dengue (DEN), Japanese encephalitis (JE) and West Nile (WN) viruses, and others, is generating a major concern in many countries. Both JE along with DEN have been endemic in large regions of India. WN virus infection, although circulating in southern regions for many years, in recent years, WN encephalitis patients have been demonstrated. While vaccines against JE have

The porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) capsid (Cap) protein and porcine parvovirus (PPV) VP2 protein have been studied in vaccines to control postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines are nonreplicative vectors that deliver epitopes and induce immune responses. However, most VLP vaccines are recombinant proteins expressed in eukaryotic systems and are expensive

Canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV2) is a highly contagious cause of serious and often fatal disease in young dogs. Despite the widespread availability of attenuated vaccines, safer, more stable, and more effective CPV2 vaccine candidates are still under exploration. Vaccinia virus (VV) has already been proved to be a safe, stable, and effective vaccine vector. In this study, we generated a VV-based CPV2

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection leads to variable outcomes, ranging from prolonged slow hepatic damage leading to cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Polymorphism in cytokines IL-10 and IL-12 that impact the immune response to HCV infection may play a role in determining this outcome. This study was aimed to determine if polymorphisms in IL-10 and IL-12B contribute to HCV susceptibility

As a zoonotic disease, ovine contagious pustular dermatitis (Orf) is a serious threat to sheep as well as humans. Orf virus (ORFV) interferon resistance protein (VIR) is the principal virulence protein that encodes a dsRNA-binding protein to inhibit host antiviral response. p53 is one of the key proteins of the host antiviral innate immunity. It not only enhances type I interferon secretion but also

Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and macrophage CSF (M-CSF) modulate differentiation and immune functions of macrophages (MΦ). Our aim was to evaluate how different MΦ differentiation conditions influence the MΦ response to virus infection. To address this, we differentiated bone marrow-derived MΦ in either GM-CSF or M-CSF and measured the cytokine responses to two different

Zika virus (ZIKV) is considered to cause an acute self-limited infection in adults, and microcephaly in fetus. Presence of the virus for long periods has been detected in body fluids; however, persistent viremia in serum for more than 1 year has not yet been reported. We have investigated persistence of ZIKV in serum samples of 77 subjects who were infected by the virus between 18 months and 3 years

Due to the worldwide impact of SARS-CoV-2, people have carried out in-depth research on the virus to fight against this highly contagious disease. In this article, many articles published recently are summarized vertically, from the structure and sites of SARS-Cov-2, the mode of transmission, the mathematical model of transmission, the mechanism of the virus itself, the symptoms of patients after infection

Infection with influenza A (H1N1) virus contributes significantly to the global burden of acute respiratory diseases. Glucose uptake and metabolic changes are reported in different cell types after infections with different virus types, including influenza A virus. Alteration of glucose metabolism specifically in immune cells has major health consequences. The aim of this study was to monitor glucose

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a paradigm for pathogen-mediated immune evasion. The immune response to HCMV has been intensively studied for many years and still remains the focus of attention for numerous research groups. UL23 is an early gene of HCMV, belonging to the US22 gene family, encoding protein UL23. However, no monoclonal antibodies against to HCMV UL23 protein have been reported to prepare

Antibody induction test (AIT) is a promising candidate as a refinement of the troublesome National institutes of Health (NIH) test in the sense of animal welfare 3R approach for determination of potency of inactivated rabies vaccines for veterinary and human use. In this study, we initially try to develop AIT as a suitable alternative to NIH test, to achieve a reduction of test duration and diminish