Abstract Human impacts on wildlife stem from both our footprint on the landscape and the presence of people in wildlife habitat. Each may influence wildlife at very different spatial and temporal scales, yet efforts to disentangle these two classes of anthropogenic disturbance in their effects on wildlife have remained limited, as have efforts to predict the spatial extent of human presence and its impacts independently of human footprint. We used camera trap data from a 1400-km2 grid spanning wildlands and residential development in central California to compare the effects of human presence (human detections on camera) and footprint (building density) on mammalian predators. We then developed a model predicting the spatial extent of human presence and its impacts across the broader landscape. Occupancy modeling and temporal activity analyses showed that human presence and footprint had non-equivalent and often opposing effects on wildlife. Larger predators (pumas Puma concolor, bobcats Lynx rufus, coyotes Canis latrans) were less active where human footprint was high but avoided high human presence temporally rather than spatially. Smaller predators (striped skunks Mephitis mephitis, Virginia opossums Didelphis virginiana) preferred developed areas but exhibited reduced activity where human presence was high. A spatial model, based on readily available landscape covariates (parking lots, trails, topography), performed well in predicting human activity outside of developed areas, and revealed high human presence even in remote protected areas that provide otherwise intact wildlife habitat. This work highlights the need to integrate multiple disturbance types when evaluating the impacts of anthropogenic activity on wildlife.

中文翻译：

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人类的存在和人类的足迹对野生动物时空栖息地的利用具有非等效的影响

摘要 人类对野生动物的影响源于我们在景观上的足迹和人类在野生动物栖息地的存在。每一种都可能在非常不同的空间和时间尺度上影响野生动物，但在对野生动物的影响方面解开这两类人为干扰的努力仍然有限，预测人类存在的空间范围及其独立于人类足迹的影响的努力也是如此。我们使用来自加利福尼亚中部荒地和住宅开发区的 1400 平方公里网格的相机陷阱数据来比较人类存在（人类对相机的检测）和足迹（建筑密度）对哺乳动物捕食者的影响。然后，我们开发了一个模型来预测人类存在的空间范围及其对更广泛景观的影响。占用模型和时间活动分析表明，人类的存在和足迹对野生动物具有不等价且通常相反的影响。较大的捕食者（美洲狮 Puma concolor、山猫 Lynx rufus、土狼 Canis latrans）在人类足迹高的地方不太活跃，但在时间上而不是空间上避免了人类的大量存在。较小的捕食者（条纹臭鼬 Mephitis mephitis、弗吉尼亚负鼠 Didelphis virginiana）更喜欢发达地区，但在人类存在较多的地区活动减少。基于现成的景观协变量（停车场、小径、地形）的空间模型在预测发达地区以外的人类活动方面表现良好，即使在提供完整野生动物栖息地的偏远保护区也显示出大量人类存在。