Tendons link muscle to bone and transfer forces necessary for normal movement. Tendon injuries can be debilitating and their intrinsic healing potential is limited. These challenges have motivated the development of model systems to study the factors that regulate tendon formation and tendon injury. Recent advances in understanding of embryonic and postnatal tendon formation have inspired approaches that aimed to mimic key aspects of tendon development. Model systems have also been developed to explore factors that regulate tendon injury and healing. We highlight current model systems that explore developmentally inspired cellular, mechanical, and biochemical factors in tendon formation and tenogenic stem cell differentiation. Next, we discuss in vivo, in vitro, ex vivo, and computational models of tendon injury that examine how mechanical loading and biochemical factors contribute to tendon pathologies and healing. These tendon development and injury models show promise for identifying the factors guiding tendon formation and tendon pathologies, and will ultimately improve regenerative tissue engineering strategies and clinical outcomes.

中文翻译：

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肌腱发育和损伤的模型。

肌腱将肌肉与骨骼连接起来，并传递正常运动所必需的力。肌腱损伤可能使人衰弱，其内在的治愈潜力有限。这些挑战促使模型系统的发展，以研究调节肌腱形成和肌腱损伤的因素。在了解胚胎和产后肌腱形成方面的最新进展启发了旨在模仿肌腱发育关键方面的方法。还开发了模型系统来探索调节肌腱损伤和愈合的因素。我们重点介绍了当前的模型系统，这些系统探索了在肌腱形成和腱生干细胞分化中受到发展启发的细胞，机械和生化因素。接下来，我们讨论体内，体外，离体，以及肌腱损伤的计算模型，用于检查机械负荷和生化因素如何促进肌腱病理和愈合。这些肌腱发育和损伤模型显示出识别指导肌腱形成和肌腱病理的因素的希望，并将最终改善再生组织工程策略和临床结果。