In pursuing the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal of affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy access for all, India’s electrification efforts are dominated by a central electricity grid, with 100% of villages now connected. Despite this, 305 million people still remain without electricity. Off-grid electrification may play an important role in energy access for these ‘last mile’ consumers. However, opportunities are directly influenced by government plans and policies, including the integration of grid and off-grid systems. This paper aims to provide a contemporary assessment of the policies of the government, and how they manifest in electrification systems in rural and remote India, revealing opportunities and threats for the sector. The progress of village electrification is examined via policy announcements and the Indian government’s dedicated websites on progress. The role and extent of off-grid systems are then examined in two contrasting Indian states: industrialised Maharashtra and less-developed Odisha. Publically-available information is supplemented with data obtained directly from known private sector operators and state agencies. The geographic and societal setting of off-grid locations is then examined to provide contextual commentary. Finally, interviews with key stakeholders (regulatory authorities, distribution companies, private firms, industry bodies and academia) were undertaken to validate findings. There is evidence of some remote localities not included in the government’s electrification programs. The grid’s poor quality and reliability, along with affordability barriers, means that the government’s grid connection efforts may not result in significant improvements in electricity use by some consumers. Data from Maharashtra and Odisha showed limited private sector off-grid systems, generally operating on the periphery of government programs. This is despite the fact that there seems to be an opportunity for the private sector to enter the market, given the grid’s shortcomings. The shortcomings of India’s centralised electrification paradigm could be overcome through more localised off-grid solutions that can access ‘last mile’ consumers. The government might consider achieving this by formally recognising the role of off-grid systems in India’s electrification objectives. Further, the government could extend the reach of electrification by transferring responsibilities for household electricity access to local-level businesses and community organisations.

中文翻译：

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印度电气化推动后的离网机遇和威胁

为了实现联合国为所有人提供负担得起的，可靠的，可持续的和现代能源的可持续发展目标，印度的电气化工作由中央电网主导，现在100％的村庄都已连接。尽管如此，仍有3.05亿人没有电。离网电气化可能在这些“最后一英里”消费者的能源获取中发挥重要作用。但是，机会直接受到政府计划和政策的影响，包括网格和离网系统的集成。本文旨在对政府政策及其在农村和偏远印度的电气化系统中的表现方式进行当代评估，揭示该部门的机遇和威胁。通过政策公告和印度政府专门的进度网站，对乡村电气化的进展进行了审查。然后在两个截然相反的印度邦考察了离网系统的作用和范围：工业化的马哈拉施特拉邦和欠发达的奥里萨邦。可直接从已知的私营部门运营商和国家机构获得的数据对可公开获得的信息进行补充。然后检查离网位置的地理和社会环境，以提供上下文注释。最后，与主要利益相关者（监管机构，分销公司，私营公司，行业机构和学术界）进行了访谈，以验证发现。有证据表明，一些偏远地区未包括在政府的电气化计划中。网格的质量和可靠性很差，加上可承受性壁垒，这意味着政府的并网努力可能不会导致某些消费者的用电量得到显着改善。马哈拉施特拉邦和奥里萨邦的数据显示，私营部门离网系统有限，通常在政府计划的外围运行。尽管存在这样的事实，但鉴于电网的缺陷，私营部门似乎有进入市场的机会。印度集中式电气化范式的缺点可以通过更本地化的离网解决方案来克服，该解决方案可以吸引“最后一英里”的消费者。政府可能会考虑通过正式承认离网系统在印度电气化目标中的作用来实现这一目标。进一步，