Angiosperms that are biotically pollinated typically produce flowers with bright and contrasting colours that help to attract pollinators and hence contribute to the reproductive success of the species. This colourful array contrasts with the much less multicoloured reproductive structures of the four living gymnosperm lineages, which are mostly wind pollinated, though cycads and Gnetales are predominantly pollinated by insects that feed on surface fluids from the pollination drops. This review examines the possible evolutionary pathways and cryptic clues for flower colour in both living and fossil seed plants. It investigates how the ancestral flowering plants could have overcome the inevitable trade-off that exists between attracting pollinators and minimizing herbivory, and explores the possible evolutionary and biological inferences from the colours that occur in some living gymnosperms. The red colours present in the seed-cone bracts of some living conifers result from accumulation of anthocyanin pigments; their likely primary function is to help protect the growing plant tissues under particular environmental conditions. Thus, the visual cue provided by colour in flower petals could have first evolved as a secondary effect, probably post-dating the evolution of bee colour vision but occurring before the subsequent functional accumulation of a range of different flower pigments.

中文翻译：

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五颜六色的视锥细胞：花的颜色是如何首先演变的？

经过生物授粉的被子植物通常会产生颜色鲜艳而对比鲜明的花朵，从而有助于吸引授粉者，从而为该物种的繁殖成功做出贡献。这种多彩的排列与四个活的裸子植物谱系的少得多的繁殖结构形成鲜明对比，后者主要是风授粉的，尽管苏铁和Gnetales主要是由以授粉滴液为食的昆虫授粉的。这项审查审查了活的和化石的种子植物中花色的可能的进化途径和隐秘线索。它研究了祖传开花植物如何克服在吸引传粉媒介和减少食草动物之间不可避免的折衷，并从一些活的裸子植物中发现的颜色探索了可能的进化和生物学推断。一些活的针叶树的种子圆锥片中存在的红色是由花青素色素的积累引起的。它们可能的主要功能是在特定环境条件下帮助保护生长中的植物组织。因此，由花瓣中的颜色提供的视觉提示可能首先是作为次要效果而演变的，可能是在蜜蜂色觉的演变之后，但发生在随后一系列不同花色素的功能性积累之前。它们可能的主要功能是在特定环境条件下帮助保护生长中的植物组织。因此，由花瓣中的颜色提供的视觉提示可能首先是作为次要效果而演变的，可能是在蜜蜂色觉的演变之后，但发生在随后一系列不同花色素的功能性积累之前。它们可能的主要功能是在特定环境条件下帮助保护生长中的植物组织。因此，由花瓣中的颜色提供的视觉提示可能首先是作为次要效果而演变的，可能是在蜜蜂色觉的演变之后，但发生在随后一系列不同花色素的功能性积累之前。