Errors are often perceived as undesirable events to be avoided at all costs. However, a growing body of research suggests that making errors is, in fact, beneficial for learning. Building on human resource development literature, the present review proposes a 3P framework of approaches to errors during learning: prevention (avoiding or observing errors), permission (allowing errors), and promotion (inducing or guiding errors). This framework is applied to examine and integrate the empirical evidence on errors that have been commonly investigated in cognitive, educational, and applied psychology research. The psychological mechanisms of each error approach are discussed, and implications for education are considered. This review then concludes by highlighting the ways in which the various error approaches interact with learner characteristics and learning contexts, as well as discussing the role of feedback in error correction and proposing directions for future research toward understanding how errors can be optimized in learning.

中文翻译：

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预防-许可-促进：学习中错误的处理方法述评

错误通常被视为不惜一切代价避免的不良事件。但是，越来越多的研究表明，犯错实际上对学习有益。本文基于人力资源开发文献，提出了一个3P框架，用于学习过程中的错误处理方法：预防（避免或观察错误），许可（允许错误）和晋升（诱发或指导错误）。该框架用于检查和整合关于错误的经验证据，这些错误已在认知，教育和应用心理学研究中被普遍调查。讨论了每种错误方法的心理机制，并考虑了对教育的影响。