ABSTRACT

Background:

Researchers in the field of sport pedagogy have highlighted questioning as a behaviour that facilitates athletes’ high-order thinking and problem-solving. However, previous studies have suggested that coaches ask a reduced number of questions during training that are typically convergent and lead players to predetermined responses. Formal coach development programmes (CDPs), intended to encourage the use of questioning, have been scrutinised for their limited impact on coaches’ practice. These criticisms have been made without consideration of the instances and situations during training that might present a better opportunity for asking different question types.

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to explore coaches’ perceptions concerning potential ‘teachable moments’ to ask convergent and divergent questions during training at three data collection points, and to associate changes between knowledge and behaviour after a work-based CDP.

Method:

Six Spanish youth football coaches working for an elite academy were recruited to a longitudinal study. The study involved a six-week CDP delivered by a coach developer, in collaboration with the club’s Academy Management Team, and an experienced research team. Data collection occurred throughout 24-months interspersed by a workshop and two directed tasks organised in several stages: (1) Pre-systematic observations (Sep–Dec 2018) and (2) pre-interviews (Jan 2019), to identify coaches’ baseline behaviours and knowledge; (3) a workshop & directed task 1 (Feb 2019), encouraging coaches to experiment and self-discover how to implement questioning within their training contexts; (4) a directed task 2 (Feb–Mar 2019), facilitating coaches’ video-based and dialogic reflections about their questions; (5) post-systematic observations (Mar–May 2019) and (6) post-interviews (May 2019), capturing changes in knowledge and questioning after the intervention; and (7) consolidation interviews (May 2020), recording coaches’ knowledge stabilisation and further developments.

Results and findings:

Four coaches completed the full CDP, whilst the remaining two coaches did not participate in the second directed task. Qualitative data suggest that all coaches developed their understanding of which moments might be most appropriate to ask convergent or divergent questions. However, only the first group of coaches presented congruent changes between the timing in which they asked questions and their perceptions. This involved higher use of convergent questions (during practice) and divergent questions (in-between practices and when the coach stops practice). Conversely, coaches in the incomplete CDP, decreased or maintained their questioning values within most instances and suggested organisational and contextual factors hindering their engagement in this work-based CDP. Therefore, real opportunities to implement questioning techniques combined with reflective practice assisted by a coach developer are proposed to translate knowledge gained during CDPs into observable behaviours.

中文翻译：

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探索训练期间提问的“可教时刻”：影响行为改变的基于工作的教练发展计划

摘要

背景：

体育教育学领域的研究人员强调，提问是一种促进运动员高阶思维和解决问题的行为。然而，之前的研究表明，教练在训练期间提出的问题数量减少了，这些问题通常是收敛的，并引导球员做出预先确定的反应。旨在鼓励使用提问的正式教练发展计划 (CDP) 因对教练实践的影响有限而受到审查。这些批评是在没有考虑培训期间可能为提出不同问题类型提供更好机会的情况下提出的。

目的：

本研究的目的是探讨教练对潜在“可教时刻”的看法，以便在三个数据收集点的训练期间提出收敛和发散的问题，并在基于工作的 CDP 之后将知识和行为之间的变化联系起来。

方法：

六名为精英学院工作的西班牙青年足球教练被招募进行纵向研究。该研究涉及由教练开发人员与俱乐部的学院管理团队和经验丰富的研究团队合作提供的为期六周的 CDP。数据收集贯穿整个 24 个月，其中穿插着一个研讨会和两个定向任务，分几个阶段组织：(1) 系统前观察（2018 年 9 月至 12 月）和 (2) 前访谈（2019 年 1 月），以确定教练的基线行为和知识；(3) 研讨会和指导任务 1（2019 年 2 月），鼓励教练尝试和自我发现如何在他们的训练环境中实施提问；(4) 一项定向任务 2（2019 年 2 月至 3 月），促进教练对他们的问题进行基于视频和对话的反思；(5) 系统后观察（2019 年 3 月至 5 月）和 (6) 访谈后（2019 年 5 月），捕捉干预后知识和提问的变化；(7) 巩固访谈（2020 年 5 月），记录教练的知识稳定和进一步发展。

结果和发现：

四名教练完成了完整的 CDP，而其余两名教练没有参加第二个指导任务。定性数据表明，所有教练都了解哪些时刻可能最适合提出趋同或不同的问题。然而，只有第一组教练提出了他们提出问题的时间和他们的看法之间的一致变化。这涉及更多地使用收敛问题（在练习期间）和发散问题（在练习之间和教练停止练习时）。相反，在不完整的 CDP 中，教练在大多数情况下会降低或保持他们的提问价值，并提出阻碍他们参与这种基于工作的 CDP 的组织和背景因素。所以，