1 INTRODUCTION

Similar to many creative (and other) industries, the film and television industries have for long been permeated by male norms, and by the male worker as the norm. In this context, women workers have always been considered “oddities” – unless they have acted in front of the camera. To a large extent, women have been (and still are) image (Fischer, 1976; Mulvey, 1975). Women's work behind the camera have been counteracted, not least through efforts to exclude them from positions characterized as “creative” or “above-the-line” such as director, producer, and script writer. Further, women have been met with pervading difficulties in allocating finances for their projects and with circumscribed possibilities to have their work screened in the cinema. And although (a few) women are key through their function as “image,” films with a woman protagonist are usually provided with a lesser budget than films with a male lead, and women actors get distinctly less paid than their male counterparts (SFI, 2018, https://www.forbes.com/sites/natalierobehmed/2017/08/22/full-list-the-worlds-highest-paid-actors-and-actresses-2017/?sh=2e1c961f3751). Let us give an example of the former: in the Swedish film industry, recently hailed worldwide of being one of the most gender equal screening industries, feature films made between 2013 and 2016 differed in terms of budget depending on the whether the protagonist in a film was male or female. Films with a male lead had on average a 33% higher budget than films with a woman lead. In that same period, women feature film directors had on average a budget ranging between 66% and 86% of the budget of films with a man as director (SFI, 2018). The report published in 2018, by the Swedish Film Institute, concluded that: “[films with women in] key functions generally have overall lower budgets than men” (SFI, 2018, p. 17).

Following the international impact that the #Metoo-movement has had and still has, and the recent demands for a 50/50 dispersion between men and women on above-the-line positions in the film industry, gender issues have advanced to the forefront in discussions dealing with the working situation in the film and screen industries. These discussions have appeared in various national contexts in print and social media, as well as in academic work (see, e.g., Jansson et al., 2020; Liddy, 2020; Marghitu, 2018; Meziani & Cabantous, 2020; O'Brien, 2019). It has become obvious that gender inequality pervades all screen industries, large and small, and that women screen workers in different national screen contexts share similar experiences. As film and television production is becoming more and more globalized, with single productions often being the outcome a variety of regional and national industries, finances and competences, working and gendered experiences of being in the industry are also becoming increasingly globalized.

Still, there are regional and local differences in how women screen workers experience their work and career situation and these need to be addressed. There are also various aspects of screen work that remain to be tended to academically. Hence, this special section offers a sample of national and local studies that all investigate how gender and equality work is done in four different contexts. It is our hope that this small sample may inspire not only more studies of national contexts, but also inspire to future cross-national studies.

Before discussing how various academic fields have engaged with the screening industries in terms of work experience and representation, we wish to point out that film and television, as two available media formats reaching large and heterogeneous audiences, constitute two of the most central expressions of our time, and that both contribute to reflect and mold our understanding of society, of others – and of ourselves (de Lauretis, 1987; Dyer, 1993). Questions about who is allowed to make film and TV and what messages and images are presented and conveyed are thus politically important and imperative.

中文翻译：

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“银幕内外：女性在银幕行业的工作”

1 介绍

与许多创意（和其他）行业类似，电影和电视行业长期以来一直被男性规范所渗透，以男性工人为规范。在这种情况下，女工一直被认为是“怪人”——除非她们在镜头前表演过。在很大程度上，女性一直是（而且仍然是）形象（Fischer，  1976；Mulvey，  1975）。女性在镜头后的工作受到了抵制，尤其是通过努力将她们排除在具有“创意”或“一线”特征的职位之外，例如导演、制片人和编剧。此外，妇女在为她们的项目分配资金方面遇到了普遍的困难，而且她们的作品在电影院放映的可能性也很有限。尽管（少数）女性通过其“形象”的功能发挥着关键作用，但女性主角的电影通常比男主角的电影预算少，而且女演员的报酬明显低于男演员（SFI，  2018年，https://www.forbes.com/sites/natalierobehmed/2017/08/22/full-list-the-worlds-highest-paid-actors-and-actresses-2017/?sh=2e1c961f3751）。让我们举一个前者的例子：在最近被誉为全球性别最平等的放映行业之一的瑞典电影业中，2013 年和 2016 年之间制作的故事片在预算方面有所不同，这取决于电影中的主角是否是男性还是女性。男主角电影的预算平均比女主角电影高 33%。在同一时期，女性故事片导演的平均预算为男性导演电影预算的 66% 至 86%（SFI，  2018）。瑞典电影学院于 2018 年发布的报告得出结论：“[女性担任]关键职能的电影总体预算低于男性”（SFI，  2018 年，第 17 页）。

随着#Metoo 运动已经并且仍然存在的国际影响，以及最近要求在电影业的一线职位上男女比例达到 50/50 的比例，性别问题已成为讨论电影和银幕行业的工作情况。这些讨论出现在各种国家背景下的印刷和社交媒体以及学术工作中（例如，参见 Jansson 等人，  2020 年；Liddy，  2020 年；Marghitu，  2018 年；Meziani & Cabantous，  2020 年；O'Brien，  2019年）。很明显，性别不平等普遍存在于所有屏幕行业，无论大小，而且不同国家屏幕背景下的女性屏幕工作者有着相似的经历。随着电影和电视制作变得越来越全球化，单一制作往往是各种区域和国家行业、财务和能力、工作和性别体验在行业中的结果也越来越全球化。

尽管如此，女性筛查工作者如何体验其工作和职业状况仍存在区域和地方差异，这些都需要解决。屏幕工作的各个方面也有待学术上的关注。因此，这个特殊部分提供了一个国家和地方研究样本，这些研究都调查了如何在四种不同的背景下完成性别和平等工作。我们希望这个小样本不仅能激发更多的国情研究，也能激发未来的跨国研究。

在讨论各个学术领域如何在工作经验和代表性方面与放映行业接触之前，我们想指出，电影和电视作为两种可用的媒体形式，可以覆盖大量不同的受众，构成了我们最核心的两种表达方式。时间，这两者都有助于反映和塑造我们对社会、他人以及我们自己的理解（de Lauretis，  1987 年；Dyer，  1993 年）。因此，关于谁可以制作电影和电视以及呈现和传达什么信息和图像的问题在政治上很重要且势在必行。