Indonesia has experienced several tsunamis triggered by seismic and non-seismic (i.e., landslides) sources. These events damaged or destroyed coastal buildings and infrastructure and caused considerable loss of life. Based on the Global Earthquake Model (GEM) guidelines, this study assesses the empirical tsunami fragility to the buildings inventory of the 2018 Sunda Strait, 2018 Sulawesi–Palu, and 2004 Indian Ocean (Khao Lak–Phuket, Thailand) tsunamis. Fragility curves represent the impact of tsunami characteristics on structural components and express the likelihood of a structure reaching or exceeding a damage state in response to a tsunami intensity measure. The Sunda Strait and Sulawesi–Palu tsunamis are uncommon events still poorly understood compared to the Indian Ocean tsunami (IOT), and their post-tsunami databases include only flow depth values. Using the TUNAMI two-layer model, we thus reproduce the flow depth, the flow velocity, and the hydrodynamic force of these two tsunamis for the first time. The flow depth is found to be the best descriptor of tsunami damage for both events. Accordingly, the building fragility curves for complete damage reveal that (i) in Khao Lak–Phuket, the buildings affected by the IOT sustained more damage than the Sunda Strait tsunami, characterized by shorter wave periods, and (ii) the buildings performed better in Khao Lak–Phuket than in Banda Aceh (Indonesia). Although the IOT affected both locations, ground motions were recorded in the city of Banda Aceh, and buildings could have been seismically damaged prior to the tsunami's arrival, and (iii) the buildings of Palu City exposed to the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami were more susceptible to complete damage than the ones affected by the IOT, in Banda Aceh, between 0 and 2 m flow depth. Similar to the Banda Aceh case, the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami load may not be the only cause of structural destruction. The buildings' susceptibility to tsunami damage in the waterfront of Palu City could have been enhanced by liquefaction events triggered by the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.

中文翻译：

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地震和非地震海啸的建筑物脆弱性曲线特征：2018 年巽他海峡、2018 年苏拉威西-帕卢海啸和 2004 年印度洋海啸的案例研究

印度尼西亚经历了几次由地震和非地震（即滑坡）源引发的海啸。这些事件损坏或摧毁了沿海建筑和基础设施，并造成了大量人员伤亡。根据全球地震模型 (GEM) 指南，本研究评估了 2018 年巽他海峡、2018 年苏拉威西-帕卢和 2004 年印度洋（泰国考拉克-普吉岛）海啸建筑物库存的经验海啸脆弱性。脆性曲线表示海啸特征对结构部件的影响，并表示结构响应海啸强度测量达到或超过损坏状态的可能性。与印度洋海啸 (IOT) 相比，巽他海峡和苏拉威西-帕卢海啸是罕见的事件，仍然知之甚少，他们的海啸后数据库只包括水流深度值。因此，我们使用 TUNAMI 两层模型首次再现了这两次海啸的水流深度、流速和水动力。发现水流深度是这两个事件的海啸破坏的最佳描述。因此，完全损坏的建筑物易损性曲线表明：（i）在考拉 - 普吉岛，受物联网影响的建筑物比巽他海峡海啸遭受的破坏更大，其特点是波浪周期更短，以及（ii）建筑物在Khao Lak–Phuket 比班达亚齐（印度尼西亚）。尽管物联网影响了这两个地点，但在班达亚齐市记录到了地面运动，并且建筑物可能在海啸到来之前就已被地震破坏，(iii) 暴露于苏拉威西-帕卢海啸的帕卢市建筑物比受物联网影响的建筑物更容易受到完全破坏，在班达亚齐，水流深度在 0 到 2 m 之间。与班达亚齐案例类似，苏拉威西-帕卢海啸负荷可能不是结构破坏的唯一原因。2018 年苏拉威西地震引发的液化事件可能会增强帕卢市海滨建筑物对海啸破坏的敏感性。