Drug nanocarriers (NCs) with sizes usually below 200 nm are gaining increasing interest in the treatment of severe diseases such as cancer and infections. Characterization methods to investigate the morphology and physicochemical properties of multifunctional NCs are key in their optimization and in the study of their in vitro and in vivo fate. Whereas a variety of methods has been developed to characterize “bulk” NCs in suspension, the scope of this review is to describe the different approaches for the NC characterization on an individual basis, for which fewer techniques are available. The accent is put on methods devoid of labelling, which could lead to artefacts. For each characterization method, the principles and approaches to analyze the data are presented in an accessible manner. Aspects related to sample preparation to avoid artefacts are indicated, and emphasis is put on examples of applications. NC characterization on an individual basis allows gaining invaluable information in terms of quality control, on: i) NC localization and fate in biological samples; ii) NC morphology and crystallinity; iii) distribution of the NC components (drugs, shells), and iv) quantification of NCs’ chemical composition. The individual characterization approaches are expected to gain increasing interest in the near future.

中文翻译：

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解读药物纳米载体的结构和化学成分：从散装方法到单个纳米颗粒表征

尺寸通常低于 200 nm 的药物纳米载体 (NC) 在治疗癌症和感染等严重疾病方面越来越受到关注。研究多功能 NCs 的形态和理化性质的表征方法是其优化和研究其体外和体内命运的关键。尽管已经开发了多种方法来表征悬浮的“大块”NC，但本次审查的范围是在个体基础上描述用于表征 NC 的不同方法，可用的技术较少。重点放在没有标签的方法上，这可能会导致伪影。对于每种表征方法，分析数据的原则和方法都以易于理解的方式呈现。指出了与避免伪影的样品制备相关的方面，并强调了应用示例。基于个体的 NC 表征可以在质量控制方面获得宝贵的信息，包括：i) 生物样品中的 NC 定位和归宿；ii) NC 形态和结晶度；iii) NC 成分（药物、外壳）的分布，以及 iv) NC 化学成分的量化。预计在不久的将来，个体表征方法将引起越来越多的兴趣。iv) NCs 化学成分的量化。预计在不久的将来，个体表征方法将引起越来越多的兴趣。iv) NCs 化学成分的量化。预计在不久的将来，个体表征方法将引起越来越多的兴趣。