Because stereotyping affects individual assessments of ability and because of socializing experiences in the law, we argue that women and judges of color, while well-credentialed, feel pressure to work harder than their white male peers to demonstrate their competence. Using an original dataset of published appellate court opinions from 2008–2016, we find that majority opinions authored by female and non-white judges go farther to explain and justify their rulings, when compared to opinions written by white male peers. In comparison to other judges, opinions by white men are about 6% shorter, with 11% fewer citations, and 17% fewer extensively discussed citations. Our findings suggest that norms about crafting judicial opinions are gendered and racialized in ways that create higher workloads for women and judges of color.

中文翻译：

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“所有人的目光都集中在你身上”：美国上诉法院的性别、种族和意见写作

由于刻板印象会影响个人能力评估以及法律中的社交经验，我们认为，女性和有色人种法官虽然拥有良好的资质，但会感到压力，需要比白人男性同龄人更努力地工作以证明自己的能力。使用 2008 年至 2016 年已发表的上诉法院意见的原始数据集，我们发现与白人男性同行撰写的意见相比，由女性和非白人法官撰写的多数意见更能解释和证明他们的裁决。与其他法官相比，白人男性的意见要短约 6%，引用次数减少 11%，广泛讨论的引用次数减少 17%。我们的研究结果表明，关于制定司法意见的规范是性别化和种族化的，这会给女性和有色人种法官带来更高的工作量。