Construction and on-site performance of the LHAASO WFCTA camera,The European Physical Journal C

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Construction and on-site performance of the LHAASO WFCTA camera
The European Physical Journal C ( IF 4.4 ) Pub Date : 2021-07-27 , DOI: 10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-09414-z
Y. X. Bai _{1,

2} , X. J. Bi _{1,

2,

3} , Y. J. Bi _{1,

2} , Z. Cao _{1,

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3,

4,

5} , J. F. Chang _{1,

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4} , X. C. Chang _{1,

2} , L. Chen _{1,

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7} , M. J. Chen _{1,

2} , M. L. Chen _{1,

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4} , S. H. Chen _{1,

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3} , S. Z. Chen _{1,

2} , X. L. Chen _{1,

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3} , N. Cheng _{1,

2} , Y. D. Cheng _{1,

2} , H. L. Dai _{1,

2,

4} , X. J. Dong _{1,

2} , Z. X. Fan _{1,

2} , K. Fang _{1,

2} , S. H. Feng _{1,

2} , B. Gao _{1,

2} , L. S. Geng _{1,

2} , Q. B. Gou _{1,

2} , M. H. Gu _{1,

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4} , J. G. Guo _{1,

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3} , J. C. He _{1,

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3} , Q. L. Huang _{1,

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3} , C. Li _{1,

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9} , C. Liu _{1,

2} , J. Liu _{1,

2} , J. Y. Liu _{1,

2} , W. Liu _{1,

2} , H. K. Lv _{1,

2} , L. L. Ma _{1,

2} , X. H. Ma _{1,

2} , M. Y. Qi _{1,

2} , X. D. Sheng _{1,

2} , J. R. Shi _{1,

2} , B. D. Wang _{1,

2} , L. Y. Wang _{1,

2} , X. J. Wang _{1,

2} , Y. D. Wang _{1,

2} , Y. J. Wang _{1,

2} , Y. P. Wang _{1,

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2,

3} , C. Y. Wu _{1,

2} , H. R. Wu _{1,

2} , S. Wu _{1,

2} , G. Xiao _{1,

2} , F. F. Yang _{1,

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4} , M. J. Yang _{1,

2} , Z. G. Yao _{1,

2} , L. Q. Yin _{1,

2} , X. H. You _{1,

2} , Z. Y. You _{1,

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3} , T. X. Zeng _{1,

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4} , Z. K. Zeng _{1,

2,

3} , M. Zha _{1,

2} , X. X. Zhai _{1,

2} , S S. Zhang _{1,

2} , X. P. Zhang _{1,

2} , Y. Zhang _{1,

1,

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2} , J. Zhao _{1,

2} , B. Zhou _{1,

2} , K. J. Zhu _{1,

2,

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2} , W. W. Tian _{3,

11} , G. M. Xiang _{3,

6} , Q. An _{4,

5} , K. Jiang _{4,

5} , X. Li _{4,

5,

7} , Z. B. Tang _{4,

5} , L. Zhao _{4,

5} , H. Y. Li _{5,

8} , B. Liu ₅ , J. Xia _{5,

8} , R. Z. Yang ₅ , R. Zhang _{5,

8} , G. H. Gong ₁₂ , X. J. Hu ₁₂ , Y. N. Liu ₁₂ , Y. M. Ye ₁₂ , X. H. Cui ₁₁ , J. L. Zhang ₁₁ , H. Zhu ₁₁ , Z. B. Sun ₁₃ , C. Wang ₁₃ , F. Zheng ₁₃ , B. Q. Ma ₉ , H. C. Song ₉ , R. X. Xu ₉ , D. Bastieri ₁₄ , J. T. Cai ₁₄ , J. H. Fan ₁₄ , S. L. He ₁₄ , Z. Y. Pei ₁₄ , H. G. Wang ₁₄ , H. B. Xiao ₁₄ , L. X. Zhang ₁₄ , Y. D. Cui ₁₅ , X. B. He ₁₅ , Y. K. Hor ₁₅ , S. J. Lin ₁₅ , J. S. Liu ₁₅ , P. H. T. Tam ₁₅ , W. Wang _{15,

16} , J. Y. Yang ₁₅ , L. L. Yang ₁₅ , E. W. Liang ₁₇ , Y. F. Liang ₁₇ , X. N. Sun ₁₇ , X. G. Wang ₁₇ , B. M. Chen ₁₈ , S. W. Cui ₁₈ , B. B. Li ₁₈ , L. Shao ₁₈ , L. Zhang _{18,

19} , P. P. Zhang ₁₈ , S. R. Zhang ₁₈ , L. Z. Zhao ₁₈ , Y. A. Han ₂₀ , H. D. Liu ₂₀ , Y. W. Bao ₂₁ , Y. Chen ₂₁ , Z. G. Dai ₂₁ , R. Y. Liu ₂₁ , X. Y. Wang ₂₁ , B. B. Zhang ₂₁ , H. M. Zhang ₂₁ , X. Zhang ₂₁ , P. Zhou ₂₁ , J. Chang ₈ , Y. Z. Fan ₈ , L. Feng ₈ , Y. L. Feng ₈ , H. N. He ₈ , S. M. Liu ₈ , D. M. Wei ₈ , J. J. Wei ₈ , X. F. Wu ₈ , Q. Yuan ₈ , H. D. Zeng ₈ , S. P. Zhao _{8,

22} , C. F. Feng ₂₂ , C. D. Gao ₂₂ , W. Gao ₂₂ , W. H. Huang ₂₂ , X. T. Huang ₂₂ , W. L. Li ₂₂ , D. Liu ₂₂ , Y. C. Nan ₂₂ , L. P. Wang ₂₂ , L. Xue ₂₂ , N. Yin ₂₂ , Y. H. Yu ₂₂ , H. Y. Zhang ₂₂ , C. G. Zhu ₂₂ , Y. Xing ₆ , J. N. Zhou ₆ , J. L. Liu ₁₀ , J. S. Wang ₁₀ , D. L. Xu ₁₀ , H. Zhou ₁₀ , Axikegu ₇ , Q. H. Chen ₇ , X. L. Guo ₇ , Y. He ₇ , D. H. Huang ₇ , Z. C. Huang ₇ , H. Y. Jia ₇ , H. Liu ₇ , W. J. Long ₇ , A. Masood ₇ , B. Y. Pang ₇ , Q. N. Sun ₇ , H. Wang ₇ , R. N. Wang ₇ , W. X. Wu ₇ , S. Q. Xi ₇ , J. J. Xia ₇ , Y. L. Xin ₇ , Y. F. Zhang ₇ , B. Zhao ₇ , Y. Zheng ₇ , X. X. Zhou ₇ , F. R. Zhu ₇ , L. X. Bai ₂₃ , J. Chen ₂₃ , S. Hu ₂₃ , Y. Li ₂₃ , Z. X. Liu ₂₃ , Z. H. Wang ₂₃ , C. W. Yang ₂₃ , Y. H. Yao ₂₃ , J. W. Zhang ₂₃ , R. Zhou ₂₃ , T. L. Chen ₂₄ , Danzengluobu ₂₄ , Q. Gao ₂₄ , M. Y. Liu ₂₄ , H. Cai ₁₆ , G. G. Xin ₁₆ , B. Z. Dai ₁₉ , J. Fang ₁₉ , M. M. Ge ₁₉ , Z. J. Jiang ₁₉ , R. Lu ₁₉ , Z. X. Wang ₁₉ , T. Wen ₁₉ , S. B. Yang ₁₉ , W. Zeng ₁₉ , P. F. Zhang ₁₉ , X. Hou ₂₅ , J. R. Mao ₂₅ , J. C. Wang ₂₅ , D. H. Yan ₂₅ , F. Aharonian _{26,

27} , B. D’Ettorre Piazzoli ₂₈ , D. Kuleshov ₂₉ , K. Levochkin ₂₉ , V. Rulev ₂₉ , O. Shchegolev _{29,

30} , Yu. V. Stenkin _{29,

30} , V. Stepanov ₂₉ , D. della Volpe ₃₁ , M. Heller ₃₁ , T. Montaruli ₃₁ , W. Mitthumsiri ₃₂ , P. Pattarakijwanich ₃₂ , D. Ruffolo ₃₂ , A. Sáiz ₃₂

Affiliation

Key Laboratory of Particle Astrophyics and Experimental Physics Division and Computing Center, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
TIANFU Cosmic Ray Research Center, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics, Beijing, China
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, Anhui, China
Key Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200030, China
School of Physical Science and Technology and School of Information Science and Technology, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, Sichuan, China
Key Laboratory of Dark Matter and Space Astronomy, Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
Tsung-Dao Lee Institute and School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
Center for Astrophysics, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China
School of Physics and Astronomy and School of Physics (Guangzhou), Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, Guangdong, China
School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, China
School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, Guangxi, China
Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
School of Physics and Astronomy, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, Yunnan, China
School of Physics and Microelectronics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China
School of Astronomy and Space Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
Institute of Frontier and Interdisciplinary Science, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, Shandong, China
College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China
Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education, Lhasa, 850000, Tibet, China
Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650216, Yunnan, China
Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 31 Fitzwilliam Place, 2 Dublin, Ireland
Max-Planck-Institut for Nuclear Physics, P.O. Box 103980, 69029, Heidelberg, Germany
Dipartimento di Fisica dell’Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117312, Russia
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow, 141700, Russia
Département de Physique Nucléaire et Corpusculaire, Faculté de Sciences, Université de Genève, 24 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand

The focal plane camera is the core component of the Wide Field-of-view Cherenkov/fluorescence Telescope Array (WFCTA) of the Large High-Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO). Because of the capability of working under moonlight without aging, silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) have been proven to be not only an alternative but also an improvement to conventional photomultiplier tubes (PMT) in this application. Eighteen SiPM-based cameras with square light funnels have been built for WFCTA. The telescopes have collected more than 100 million cosmic ray events and preliminary results indicate that these cameras are capable of working under moonlight. The characteristics of the light funnels and SiPMs pose challenges (e.g. dynamic range, dark count rate, assembly techniques). In this paper, we present the design features, manufacturing techniques and performances of these cameras. Finally, the test facilities, the test methods and results of SiPMs in the cameras are reported here.

中文翻译：

LHAASO WFCTA 相机的构建和现场性能

焦平面相机是大型高空空气阵雨天文台（LHAASO）的宽视场切伦科夫/荧光望远镜阵列（WFCTA）的核心部件。由于能够在月光下工作而不老化，硅光电倍增管 (SiPM) 已被证明不仅是该应用中传统光电倍增管 (PMT) 的替代品，而且是一种改进。已为 WFCTA 构建了 18 个带有方形光漏斗的基于 SiPM 的相机。这些望远镜已经收集了超过 1 亿个宇宙射线事件，初步结果表明这些相机能够在月光下工作。光漏斗和 SiPM 的特性带来了挑战（例如动态范围、暗计数率、组装技术）。在本文中，我们介绍了设计特点，这些相机的制造技术和性能。最后，这里报告了相机中 SiPM 的测试设施、测试方法和结果。

更新日期：2021-07-27

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