Using data from the British Household Panel Survey and focusing on women who became mothers between 1995 and 2005, we estimate the motherhood penalty for women’s own earnings and for the total income of their household: that is, we consider the extent to which motherhood carries a penalty not only for a mother but also for her family. We adopt an approach that differs from those previously employed in research on motherhood penalties: we follow Hernán and Robins, setting up our data as a ‘target trial’, and we analyse it using the Individual Synthetic Control method, based on the Synthetic Control approach of Abadie, Diamond and Hainmueller. We find considerable variation in the effect of motherhood on British women’s earnings, but the median penalty is a reduction in medium- and long-term earnings by about 45 per cent relative to what women would have earned if they had remained childless. Motherhood has no effect on average on the income of the woman’s household, but has substantial negative effects for some households. Focusing on both individual and household penalties yields a more complete picture of the distributional consequences of motherhood than hitherto.

中文翻译：

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母亲的收入和收入惩罚：使用个人综合控制方法对英国女性的估计

使用英国家庭小组调查的数据并关注 1995 年至 2005 年期间成为母亲的女性，我们估计了女性自身收入和家庭总收入的孕产惩罚：也就是说，我们考虑了做母亲的程度不仅是对母亲的惩罚，也是对她家人的惩罚。我们采用了一种不同于以前在母性惩罚研究中采用的方法：我们遵循 Hernán 和 Robins，将我们的数据设置为“目标试验”，并使用基于综合控制方法的个体综合控制方法对其进行分析阿巴迪、戴蒙德和海姆勒。我们发现母性对英国女性收入的影响存在相当大的差异，但中位处罚是，与没有孩子的妇女本应获得的相比，中长期收入减少约 45%。做母亲对妇女家庭的平均收入没有影响，但对一些家庭有很大的负面影响。关注个人和家庭的惩罚可以比以往更全面地了解母性的分配后果。