Mountain regions harbour high biodiversity; however, in numerous areas, they are strongly degraded by human activity. Our study reconstructs the development of the submontane forest belt (400 and 650 m a.s.l.) in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains (Western Carpathians, Central Europe) affected by climate, humans, fire, and parasitic fungi during the Holocene. This forest belt is considered the most transformed by the human in the Carpathian region. Our multi-proxy study included analyses of pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), plant macrofossils, micro- and macrocharcoal (size fraction >100 µm, analysed in contiguous sampling), geochemical, and sedimentological markers. The results revealed that Picea abies dominated on the fen subjected to study at ca. 8510–5010 cal. BP. Tilia cordata was a substantial component of the submontane forest between ca. 8510 and 2970 cal. BP and it survived a probable Kretzschmaria deusta outbreak, as well as a period of increased fire activity (ca. 6000 cal. BP). The final retreat of forests with a substantial contribution of Tilia was induced by the expansion of Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, and partly Carpinus betulus and was preceded by the period of increased fire activity and erosion. From ca. 900 cal. BP human-induced deforestations and agricultural and pastoral activity increased. The modern presence of woodlands with Pinus sylvestris and Larix decidua, in the submontane zone in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains, is a result of sub-recent anthropogenic afforestation on overgrazed areas. The example of the Zbludza site reveals that changes related to fire and pathogen infections, if they have low magnitudes and new competitive taxa are absent, may be reversible in a forest composed of fire-intolerant tree taxa as Tilia. Nonetheless, the widespread submontane ecosystem degradation and the introduction of alien species hamper the regeneration of forest vegetation typical of the submontane zone.

山区拥有丰富的生物多样性；然而，在许多地区，它们因人类活动而严重退化。我们的研究重建了全新世期间受气候、人类、火灾和寄生真菌影响的 Beskid Wyspowy 山脉（西喀尔巴阡山脉，中欧）的亚山地森林带（400 米和 650 米）的发展。该森林带被认为是喀尔巴阡地区人类改造最多的森林带。我们的多代理研究包括对花粉、非花粉孢粉体 (NPP)、植物大型化石、微型和大型木炭（尺寸分数 >100 µm，在连续采样中进行分析）、地球化学和沉积学标记的分析。结果表明，冷杉云杉在大约 10 小时的研究中占主导地位。8510–5010 卡路里。BP。椴树是大约之间山地森林的重要组成部分。8510 和 2970 卡路里。BP 并在可能的Kretzschmaria deusta爆发以及火灾活动增加的时期（约 6000 cal. BP）中幸存下来。由冷杉、山毛榉和部分桦木的扩张引起了椴树的大量贡献的森林的最后退缩，并且在此之前是火灾活动和侵蚀增加的时期。从约。900 卡路里 BP 人为造成的森林砍伐以及农业和畜牧业活动增加。樟子松和落叶松林地的现代存在, 在 Beskid Wyspowy 山脉的山下地带，是近来在过度放牧地区人为造林的结果。Zbludza 站点的示例表明，与火灾和病原体感染相关的变化，如果它们的量级较低且不存在新的竞争类群，则在由不耐火树类群组成的森林中可能是可逆的，如椴树。尽管如此，广泛的山下生态系统退化和外来物种的引入阻碍了山下地区典型森林植被的再生。