Rural Europe encompasses a variety of landscapes with differing levels of forest, agriculture, and agroforestry that can deliver multiple ecosystem services (ES). Whilst provisioning and regulating ES associated with individual land covers are comparatively well studied, less is known about the associated cultural ES. Only seldom are provisioning, regulating, and cultural ES investigated together to evaluate how they contribute to multifunctionality. In this study we combined biophysical and sociocultural approaches to assess how different landscapes (dominated by forest, agriculture or agroforestry) and landscape characteristics (i.e. remoteness and landscape diversity) drive spatial associations of ES (i.e. synergies, trade-offs and bundles). We analysed data of: i) seven provisioning and regulating ES (spatially modelled), and; ii) six cultural ES (derived from participatory mapping data) in 12 study sites across four different biogeographical regions of Europe. Our results showed highly differentiated ES profiles for landscapes associated to a specific land cover, with agroforestry generally providing higher cultural ES than forest and agriculture. We found a positive relationship between the proportion of forest in a landscape and provisioning and regulating ES, whilst agriculture showed negative relationships. We found four distinct bundles of ES. Three of them were directly related to a dominant land cover and the fourth to a mixture of forest and agroforestry that was associated with high social value. The latter bundle was related to zones close to urban areas and roads and medium to high landscape diversity. These findings suggest that agroforestry should be prioritised over other land covers in such areas as it delivers a suite of multiple ES, provided it is close to urban areas or roads. Our results also illustrate the importance and application of including people’s perception in the assessment of ES associations and highlight the relevance of developing integrated analyses of ES to inform landscape management decisions.

欧洲农村地区包括森林、农业和农林业的不同水平的各种景观，可以提供多种生态系统服务 (ES)。虽然对与个别土地覆盖相关的 ES 的供应和调节进行了相对深入的研究，但对相关的文化 ES 知之甚少。很少同时调查供应、调节和文化 ES 以评估它们如何促进多功能性。在这项研究中，我们结合生物物理和社会文化方法来评估不同的景观（以森林、农业或农林业为主）和景观特征（即偏远和景观多样性）如何驱动 ES 的空间关联（即协同作用、权衡和捆绑）。我们分析了以下数据：i) 七个配置和调节 ES（空间建模），以及；ii) 欧洲四个不同生物地理区域的 12 个研究地点的六个文化 ES（来自参与式绘图数据）。我们的结果显示了与特定土地覆盖相关的景观的高度分化的 ES 概况，农林业通常比森林和农业提供更高的文化 ES。我们发现景观中森林的比例与提供和调节 ES 之间存在正相关关系，而农业则呈负相关。我们发现了四个不同的 ES 包。其中三个与占主导地位的土地覆盖直接相关，第四个与具有高社会价值的森林和农林业混合。后一束与靠近市区和道路的区域以及中到高度的景观多样性有关。这些发现表明，在这些地区，农林业应优先于其他土地覆盖，因为它提供了一套多 ES，前提是它靠近城市地区或道路。我们的结果还说明了将人们的看法纳入 ES 协会评估的重要性和应用，并强调了开发 ES 综合分析以告知景观管理决策的相关性。