Using sources in Arabic, Gujarati, Ottoman, Persian and Urdu, this article examines the foundation of Bohra and Khoja pilgrimage institutions straddling western India and Iraq's Shīʿī shrine cities between 1897 and 1932. As manifestations of ‘locative piety’, these institutions were an outgrowth of the commercial capital Bohra and Khoja merchants had acquired in Indian Ocean trade over the previous half century, and the distinct caste and sectarian identities this wealth augmented. The Bohra and Khoja (both Twelver and Ismāʿīlī) mercantile and religious elites supplied their constituents with a well-ordered pilgrimage to Iraq, certainly by the standards of contemporary Hajj. To achieve this, community-run institutional nodes in Karachi, Bombay and the Shīʿī shrine cities were integrated into wider transport, administrative, and financial infrastructures connecting India and Iraq. Yet at a time when Najaf and Karbala's economic and religious fortunes were plagued by sectarianism, political upheavals and divisions among the mujtahids, the growing presence of western Indian Shīʿīs in the shrine cities was fiercely condemned by some Twelver Shīʿī clerics. One of their number, Muḥammad Karīm Khurāsānī, published a substantial polemic against the Bohras and Khojas in 1932, signalling how these pilgrimage infrastructures worked to exacerbate intra-Shīʿī disputes.

中文翻译：

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1897 年至 1932 年，“印度货币”、Shīʿī 内部辩论以及伊拉克圣地城市的 Bohra 和 Khoja 朝圣基础设施

本文使用阿拉伯语、古吉拉特语、奥斯曼语、波斯语和乌尔都语的资料，考察了 1897 年至 1932 年间横跨印度西部和伊拉克什叶圣地城市的 Bohra 和 Khoja 朝圣机构的基础。作为“地方虔诚”的表现，这些机构是一种产物Bohra 和 Khoja 商人在过去半个世纪的印度洋贸易中获得了商业资本，而这种财富增加了独特的种姓和宗派身份。Bohra 和 Khoja（Twelver 和 Ismāʿīlī）的商业和宗教精英为他们的选民提供了井然有序的伊拉克朝圣之旅，当然按照当代朝觐的标准。为实现这一目标，卡拉奇、孟买和什叶神社城市的社区运营机构节点被整合到更广泛的交通、行政、以及连接印度和伊拉克的金融基础设施。然而，在纳杰夫和卡尔巴拉的经济和宗教命运受到宗派主义、政治动荡和穆杰塔希德，在神社城市中越来越多的西印度什叶派受到了一些十二位什叶派神职人员的强烈谴责。他们中的一员，穆罕默德·卡里姆·呼拉珊尼 (Muḥammad Karīm Khurāsānī) 在 1932 年发表了一篇针对博赫拉斯和霍贾斯的激烈论战，表明这些朝圣基础设施如何加剧了什叶派内部的争端。