This foundation article discusses the diagnostics of electrons and ions in plasmas and fluxes of charged and neutral species toward plasma-facing surfaces by non-optical methods. The focus is laid on the fundamentals of the most common methods and their application to non-equilibrium low-pressure electropositive plasmas and ion beams. The key topics are Langmuir probes (LPs), Faraday cups (FCs) and energy analyzers, mass spectrometry, as well as novel calorimetric and force probes (FPs). For each method, the concepts are introduced, hints at best practice are given, and a survey of the recently published literature is included. Starting with the sheath–plasma boundary, the principles of plane and cylindrical LPs and the measurement of electron temperature and density are discussed. Beyond standard textbooks, double, triple and emissive probes are described and modulation techniques for obtaining the electron energy distribution function are presented. More technical issues related to probe compensation in radio-frequency plasmas, probe contamination, and the influence of a magnetic field are also included. The presentation is completed by modern radio-frequency techniques, such as impedance probes, multipole resonance probes, and self-excited electron resonance spectroscopy. FCs, retarding field analyzers (RFAs) as well as novel calorimetric and FPs are useful tools for the measurement of overall, not species resolved, ions and neutral species fluxes toward surfaces. RFAs provide overall ion energy distribution functions, whereas calorimetric and FPs can deliver information about fluxes of fast neutrals. The issues related to secondary electron emission, absolute signal calibration, and analysis of plasmas with complex chemistry are discussed. Mass spectrometry diagnostics is capable of mass and energy-resolved detection of ions and neutral species at the plasma-facing surfaces. Detection, identification and absolute density calibration of neutral stable and radical species are treated in detail and peculiarities of ion mass spectrometry, such as detection of negative ions, ion measurements in front of powered electrodes, or chromatic aberration and acceptance angle limitations in energy spectrum measurements are introduced.

这篇基础文章讨论了通过非光学方法诊断等离子体中的电子和离子以及带电和中性物质流向面向等离子体的表面。重点放在最常见方法的基础及其在非平衡低压正电等离子体和离子束中的应用。关键主题是朗缪尔探针 (LP)、法拉第杯 (FC) 和能量分析仪、质谱以及新型量热和力探针 (FP)。对于每种方法，都介绍了概念，给出了最佳实践的提示，并包括对最近发表的文献的调查。从鞘-等离子体边界开始，讨论了平面和圆柱形 LP 的原理以及电子温度和密度的测量。超出标准教科书，双重，描述了三重和发射探针，并介绍了用于获得电子能量分布函数的调制技术。还包括与射频等离子体中的探针补偿、探针污染和磁场影响相关的更多技术问题。介绍是通过现代射频技术完成的，例如阻抗探针、多极共振探针和自激电子共振光谱。FC、阻滞场分析仪 (RFA) 以及新型量热法和 FP 是测量整体而非物种解析的离子和中性物种流向表面的有用工具。RFA 提供整体离子能量分布功能，而量热和 FP 可以提供有关快速中性粒子通量的信息。与二次电子发射有关的问题，讨论了绝对信号校准和具有复杂化学性质的等离子体分析。质谱诊断能够在面向等离子体的表面对离子和中性物质进行质量和能量分辨检测。中性稳定和自由基物种的检测、识别和绝对密度校准被详细处理和离子质谱的特性，例如负离子的检测、通电电极前的离子测量，或能谱测量中的色差和接受角限制介绍。