In this article, I investigate why international law and norms have failed to keep cyberspace peaceful. The problem comes mainly from their failure to address what non-state actors, such as individual hackers and technology firms, do in cyberspace. Created by the extensive input of government officials decades ago with heavy focus on states as primary actors of international politics, international law is incoherent with the dominance of non-state actors as de facto operators of cyberspace. The critical problem shared by international law and institutions of having no “teeth” to penalize non-state violence extends to cyberspace. As a result, noncompliance with international law has become practical, and it has even bolstered the private sector, especially major technology firms, to assert themselves in the legal void, leverage their digital products to reshape norms, and become norm entrepreneurs in the business of digital defense. However, the multiplication of norm entrepreneurs has accelerated in an uncoordinated manner, and the way they built their interests does not neatly align with those of the states. While some norms of cyberspace behavior have been accepted, many others remain contested. In the meantime, norm discourse in diplomatic venues, including in multilateral debates at the United Nations, has become highly undemocratic, dominated by a small mix of great powers and active middle powers that are also split over what norms should guide state and nonstate behaviors.

中文翻译：

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为什么国际法和规范在防止非国家网络攻击方面作用不大

在本文中，我调查了为什么国际法和规范未能保持网络空间的和平。问题主要来自他们未能解决非国家行为者（例如个人黑客和技术公司）在网络空间中所做的事情。几十年前，由于政府官员的广泛投入，重点关注国家作为国际政治的主要行为者，国际法与非国家行为者作为网络空间事实上的运营者的主导地位不一致。国际法和机构没有“牙齿”来惩罚非国家暴力的关键问题延伸到网络空间。因此，不遵守国际法已成为现实，甚至促使私营部门，尤其是大型科技公司，在法律空白中维护自己的地位，利用他们的数字产品重塑规范，成为数字防御业务的规范企业家。然而，规范企业家的倍增以不协调的方式加速，他们建立自己利益的方式与州的利益不一致。虽然一些网络空间行为规范已被接受，但许多其他规范仍然存在争议。与此同时，在外交场合，包括在联合国的多边辩论中，规范话语已变得高度不民主，由一小部分大国和活跃的中等强国主导，它们在规范应该指导国家和非国家行为的问题上也存在分歧。他们建立自己利益的方式与各州的利益不一致。虽然一些网络空间行为规范已被接受，但许多其他规范仍然存在争议。与此同时，在外交场合，包括在联合国的多边辩论中，规范话语已变得高度不民主，由一小部分大国和活跃的中等强国主导，它们在规范应该指导国家和非国家行为的问题上也存在分歧。他们建立自己利益的方式与各州的利益不一致。虽然一些网络空间行为规范已被接受，但许多其他规范仍然存在争议。与此同时，在外交场合，包括在联合国的多边辩论中，规范话语已变得高度不民主，由一小部分大国和活跃的中等强国主导，它们在规范应该指导国家和非国家行为的问题上也存在分歧。