Looming large in the background of this masterful new narrative of relief sculpture in medieval Italy is Erwin Panofsky’s classic essay “Perspective as Symbolic Form” (1927). Whereas Panofsky saw one-point perspective in Renaissance painting as emerging from the reception of Aristotelian natural philosophy by Scholastic writers and experiments in perspective in Gothic art around 1200, Christopher R. Lakey theorizes a scientifically based “optical aesthetics” in relief sculpture three centuries before Leon Battista Alberti codified a consistent perspective technique for painters in De pictura (1434). Past scholarship has explored applications of perspective to trecento painting, architecture, and urban space, but Lakey is the first to consider how Romanesque architectural sculpture manifests its own, distinctive optical theory, laying the foundation for tying truth in painting to its simulation of relief. Embracing Ernst Gombrich’s concept of the “beholder’s share” and recent theories of spectatorship, Lakey aims to show how image theory, optical science, and geometry informed “constructions of beholding” that were specifically applied to relief sculpture facing public space from the late eleventh through the twelfth centuries. Perspective was intimately associated with relief sculpture because its physical presence in space joined the pictorial to the plastic, fostering an “embodied seeing.” The first of five chapters traces the genealogy of “embodied seeing” to Greek philosophical writings about vision and late antique and Arabic medical literature on the physiology of the eye. Lakey highlights the Latin translation of Plato’s Timaeus by Calcidius (ca. 400) as a primary source for medieval extramission (or emission) theories of vision and the key to a Christian understanding of sight that linked body and soul to perception. Augustine of Hippo’s Literal Meaning of Genesis occupies a central place in later Christian formulations of optical experience, both for its account of an ascending tripartite scheme of vision—corporeal, spiritual, and intellectual—and for its insistence that vision could be activated only by the viewer directing attention to the object and willing fiery light rays to reach it. For the mechanics of vision, Lakey turns to Greek and Arabic writings translated into Latin during the eleventh century at the celebrated medical school of Salerno. Key works include Nemesius of Emesa’s Treatise on the Human Body, translated from Greek into Latin as De natura hominis by Alfanus of Salerno (ca. 1020–85); Galen’s Anatomy, translated by Constantine the African (d. 1098); and Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq’s Isagoge, which offered a summary of Galen’s medical practice. In chapter 2, “The Iconology of Sight,” focusing on Wiligelmo’s facade reliefs for Modena Cathedral (1099–1106), Lakey adapts Panofsky’s concept of iconology to explore how iconography, ritual movement, and perspective effects shape the optical experience of the moving spectator. Lakey accepts the conclusions of Roberto Salvini and Eric Fernie that the facade reliefs were originally designed as a continuous frieze, just above eye level of the spectator standing in the piazza; he also reiterates Dorothy F. Glass’s thesis that the narrative of the Creation, Fall, and redemption from the Flood reinforces the message of the Gregorian Reform papacy precisely at the moment in which the Modena diocese succeeded in separating itself from the Holy Roman emperor.1 What is new is Lakey’s reconstruction of optical experience. Viewed from five to ten feet (1.6 to 3m) away from the facade at an angle of thirty to thirty-five degrees, the reliefs reveal the “full-bodiedness of the figures,” thereby establishing a direct connection to beholders. In contrast to the fixity of one-point perspective in Italian Renaissance art, the Modena frieze, Lakey argues, mirrored the movements of the depicted bodies along public processional and pilgrimage routes, parallel to the facade. He further contends that the sculpted bodies engender a “performative space” that is activated by the presence of the spectator and “transform[s] the minds and places of the beholders through movement—out of sin and into grace, from the piazza out of doors into the Heavenly Jerusalem” (54). Lakey further shows how the act of seeing is emphasized in individual figures by the drilled pupils and lead inlays of the irises, causing the eyes to glisten and come alive (72). The articulation of the eyes materially conveys Reviews

中文翻译：

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雕塑的目光：中世纪意大利的浮雕，光学和透视的崛起，克里斯托弗·雷基（Christopher R. Lakey）

欧文·帕诺夫斯基（Erwin Panofsky）的经典论文“透视作为符号形式”（Perspective as Symbolic Form，1927），在中世纪意大利这种浮雕雕塑的崭新叙述的背景中隐约可见。潘诺夫斯基认为，文艺复兴时期绘画的一种观点是从学者对亚里士多德的自然哲学的接受和大约1200年哥特式艺术的观点实验中产生的，而克里斯托弗·雷克（Christopher R. Lakey）在三个世纪之前的浮雕雕塑中提出了一种基于科学的“光学美学”理论。莱昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿尔贝蒂（Leon Battista Alberti）为De Pictura（1434）中的画家编撰了一种一致的透视技术。过去的学者研究过透视技术在trecento绘画，建筑和城市空间中的应用，但是Lakey是第一个考虑罗马式建筑雕塑如何表现出自己独特的光学理论的人，为绘画中的真相与浮雕的模拟打下基础。拥抱恩斯特·冈伯里奇（Ernst Gombrich）的“旁观者的份额”概念和最新的观看理论，莱克（Lakey）的目的是展示图像理论，光学科学和几何学如何从11月下旬至11月下旬专门应用于面向公共空间的浮雕雕塑的“观察性构造”。第十二个世纪。透视图与浮雕雕塑有着密切的联系，因为其在太空中的物理存在将绘画与塑料雕塑结合在一起，形成了一种“体现的视觉效果”。五章中的第一章将“具体看见”的家谱追溯到有关视觉的希腊哲学著作以及有关眼生理的晚期古董和阿拉伯医学文献。莱西强调了Calcidius（ca. （第400页），这是中世纪关于视觉的引渡（或发射）理论的主要来源，也是基督教将肉体与灵魂与感知联系起来的视觉理解的关键。河马的《创世纪的字面意义》的奥古斯丁在后来的光学经验的基督教形式中占据中心位置，这既是因为它提出了一种三方的视觉计划-身体，精神和智力-又坚持认为视觉只能由人类来激活。观众将注意力转移到该对象上，并愿意用炽烈的光线到达该对象。对于视觉机制，莱西转向著名的萨勒诺医学院（Salerno）在十一世纪将希腊文和阿拉伯文翻译成拉丁文。主要作品包括Emesa关于人体的论文Nemesius，萨勒诺的阿凡诺斯（Alfanus of Salerno）将希腊语译成拉丁语，即De natura hominis（约1020–85年）；加伦的解剖学，非洲君士坦丁译（卒于1098年）；ḤunaynibnIsḥāq的Isagoge总结了Galen的医疗实践。在第2章“视线的象形学”中，着眼于Wiligelmo在摩德纳大教堂（1099–1106）上的外墙浮雕，Lakey修改了Panofsky的象形学概念，以探讨象形学，仪式运动和透视效果如何塑造运动观众的视觉体验。莱克西（Lakey）接受罗伯托·萨尔维尼（Roberto Salvini）和埃里克·费尼（Eric Fernie）的结论，即立面浮雕最初是设计成连续的饰条，刚好位于站在广场旁的观众的视线上方。他还重申了多萝西·格拉斯（Dorothy F. Glass）的论点，即关于创造，堕落，正是从摩德纳教区成功将自己与神圣罗马帝国皇帝分离开来的那一刻起，从洪水中救赎出来并加强了格里高利改革罗马教皇的信息。1新的是莱西对光学体验的重建。从与立面相距五到十英尺（1.6至3m）的角度以三十五至三十五度的角度观察，浮雕显示出“人物的身体丰满”，从而与旁观者建立了直接联系。莱基认为，与意大利文艺复兴时期艺术中的单点视角固定性相反，摩德纳的带状装饰反映了所描绘的尸体沿着公共游行和朝圣路线平行于立面的运动。他进一步争辩说，雕刻的身体产生了一个“表演性空间”，这种空间被旁观者的存在激活，并通过从罪恶之地到恩典的运动，从旁观者出来，将旁观者的思想和位置改变了。通往天上的耶路撒冷”（54）。Lakey进一步说明，通过钻出的瞳孔和虹膜的前导镶嵌物，如何在单个人物中强调看到的行为，从而使眼睛闪闪发光并变得活跃（72）。清晰的眼睛传达了评论