Of all the technical and scientific developments that made possible the European maritime expansion, the nautical chart is perhaps the least studied and understood. This fact is very surprising as it was with the information contained in those charts, and later imported to geographical maps and atlases, that the newly discovered lands were first shown to the European nations. There was, however, a deep incompatibility between these two cartographic paradigms—the nautical charts and the geographical maps—which remained unsolved throughout the sixteenth century and beyond, despite the attempts to harmonize the technical principles of Ptolemy’s Geography with the advances of nautical cartography. An eloquent symptom of such incompatibility was the difference between what was understood as an accurate depiction of the Earth, in the eyes of cosmographers and geographers, and what was considered by the pilots as an accurate nautical chart. The misunderstandings around these issues during the early modern period and the unsuccessful attempts at reconciliation were, in great part, the cause for some polemics among cosmographers, cartographers and pilots, such as the conflict in the Casa de Contratacion around the charts of Diego Gutierrez, a fact not entirely understood by historians. At the core of the difficulty lies the circumstance that only in the present day has the true nature of the nautical chart, as a navigational tool, started to be clarified. How the differences between geographical maps and nautical charts contributed to shape the History of Cartography in various periods, and how they are related to conflicting scholarly objectives and practices, is the subject of this essay. We will show, using the results of cartometric analysis, that not only were those artifacts constructed using different principles and with different purposes, but that they belonged to incompatible cartographic paradigms, and we will argue for the relevance of this fact for the history of science.

中文翻译：

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早期现代航海图和地图：研究不同的制图范式

在使欧洲海上扩张成为可能的所有技术和科学发展中，海图可能是研究和理解最少的。这个事实非常令人惊讶，因为这些图表中包含的信息，后来被导入到地理地图和地图集，新发现的土地首先被展示给欧洲国家。然而，尽管试图将托勒密地理学的技术原理与航海制图学的进步相协调，这两种制图范式——海图和地理地图——之间存在着深刻的不兼容，这在整个 16 世纪及以后仍未得到解决。这种不兼容的一个雄辩的症状是被理解为对地球的准确描述之间的差异，在宇宙学家和地理学家的眼中，飞行员认为是准确的海图。近代早期对这些问题的误解以及和解的失败在很大程度上是宇宙学家、制图师和飞行员之间争论的原因，例如围绕着迭戈·古铁雷斯（Diego Gutierrez）的海图的 Casa de Contratacion 中的冲突，一个历史学家并不完全理解的事实。难点的核心在于，海图作为一种导航工具的真正性质，直到今天才开始被阐明。地理地图和海图之间的差异如何影响不同时期的制图史，以及它们如何与相互冲突的学术目标和实践相关联，是本文的主题。我们将使用制图分析的结果表明，这些人工制品不仅使用不同的原理和不同的目的建造，而且它们属于不兼容的制图范式，我们将论证这一事实与科学史的相关性.