No study to date has simultaneously tested how poor peer relations, generic risk factors, and parental attitudes impact the behavioral and emotional challenges of children who vary in their gender expression. In a community sample, the present study investigated various hypothesized psychosocial and generic risk factors regarding the association between childhood gender nonconformity (GNC) and psychological well-being. Canadian parents/guardians reported on their children aged 6–12 years (N = 1719, 48.8% assigned male at birth) regarding their child’s GNC, measured by the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children; behavioral and emotional challenges, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); and peer relations, measured by the CBCL and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Parent/guardian gender-stereotypical attitudes toward child-rearing were assessed using an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Sex Role Attitude Scale, and attachment between the parent/guardian and child was measured with an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Practices Report. Based on regression analyses, GNC was related to elevated behavioral and emotional challenges, and this association was stronger for those who experienced poor peer relations as well as for those whose parents/guardians endorsed gender-stereotyped attitudes and were less willing to serve as a secure base for the child. Recommendations are provided for ways in which social environments can be altered to improve psychological well-being among gender-nonconforming children.

迄今为止，还没有任何研究同时测试不良的同伴关系、一般风险因素和父母的态度如何影响性别表达不同的儿童的行为和情感挑战。在社区样本中，本研究调查了有关儿童性别不一致性 (GNC) 与心理健康之间关联的各种假设的社会心理和一般风险因素。加拿大父母/监护人报告了他们 6-12 岁的孩子（N = 1719, 48.8% 出生时被分配为男性）关于他们孩子的 GNC，通过儿童性别认同问卷测量；行为和情绪挑战，由儿童行为检查表 (CBCL) 衡量；和同伴关系，由 CBCL 和力量与困难问卷衡量。使用儿童抚养性别角色态度量表的改编版本评估父母/监护人对抚养孩子的性别陈规定型态度，并使用儿童抚养实践报告的改编版本衡量父母/监护人和孩子之间的依恋。根据回归分析，GNC 与升高的行为和情绪挑战有关，这种关联对于那些经历过不良同伴关系的人以及父母/监护人认可性别刻板印象并且不太愿意作为孩子安全基地的人来说更强烈。就如何改变社会环境以改善性别不一致儿童的心理健康提供了建议。