This paper examines two disputes brought by the United States and New Zealand in response to a series of import sanctions for agricultural products imposed by the Indonesian government to promote food self-sufficiency. We document the heterogeneous effect the sanctioning measures had on Indonesia's partners. We argue that Indonesia's import licensing regimes acted as a high, sometimes prohibitive, fixed cost of exporting. Frequent changes of regulation provided additional challenges and increased the costs of exporting. These properties determined the differential impacts of Indonesia's measures where some sustained significant market losses while other large exporters, in particular Australia, following a short decline strengthened their market position and export levels.

中文翻译：

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印度尼西亚——进口许可制度：关贸总协定农产品贸易规则？

本文考察了美国和新西兰为应对印度尼西亚政府为促进粮食自给而实施的一系列农产品进口制裁而提起的两起纠纷。我们记录了制裁措施对印度尼西亚合作伙伴的不同影响。我们认为，印度尼西亚的进口许可制度是一种高昂的、有时甚至令人望而却步的固定出口成本。法规的频繁变化带来了额外的挑战并增加了出口成本。这些属性决定了印度尼西亚措施的不同影响，其中一些遭受重大市场损失，而其他大型出口国，特别是澳大利亚，在短暂下降后加强了他们的市场地位和出口水平。