BackgroundWhile several studies show that examinees’ test motivation biases their results in low-stakes tests, studies that investigate the predictors of motivation when taking low-stakes tests are rare. Moreover, little evidence exists on whether test motivation represents a state-like or trait-like construct. Research into these matters needs statistical models that allow distinguishing inter-individual from intra-individual variability of motivation across a range of test situations. The present study is located in a vocational school setting and aims to explain variations in vocational students’ low-stakes test motivation. We draw on Urhahne’s (Psychologische Rundschau 59:150–166, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042.59.3.150) synthesis of motivation theories in academic learning contexts to substantiate potential predictors. Since we concentrate on person-dependent characteristics, relevant predictors are types of self-determined/external behavioural regulation, achievement motivation, academic self-concept, and grit. In line with Eccles et al. (In: Spence JT (eds) Achievement and achievement motives: psychological and sociological approaches. Freeman, San Francisco, pp 109–132, 1983) and Sundre (The Student Opinion Scale (SOS). A measure of examinee motivation: test manual. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238741273_The_Student_Opinion_Scale_SOS, 2007), we further discern value attributions to and invested effort in each test as two separate dimensions of test motivation.MethodEmpirical analyses utilize longitudinal questionnaire and test performance data of students (N = 852) from full time vocational schools, who participated repeatedly in a low-stakes accounting test at the end of each school year (5 years in total). Latent singletrait–multistate (STMS) models serve to disentangle trait-like and state-like components of students’ test motivation and their respective associations with trait- and state-components of the assumed predictor variables.ResultsFindings from STMS models indicate that approx. 30% of variation in students’ test motivation is stable over time, whereas approx. 25% is attributable to the test situation, leading to a high portion of 45% residual variance. Bivariate STMS analyses show that students’ achievement motivation and type of behavioural regulation predict the value dimension of their test motivation. This pattern appears for the trait-like components of investigated constructs (here: time-invariant, person-specific levels of predictors and criteria) as well as for the state-like components (here: intra-individual increases or declines in predictors and criteria). Regarding the effort dimension of test motivation, similar associations among the trait-like components appear. Students’ self-reported effort is positively predicted by type of behavioural regulation and achievement motivation. Moreover, and in contrast to the value dimension, students’ perseverance plays a crucial role when predicting test-taking effort. Finally, a multivariate intercept-only growth model was estimated to analyse the relative contributions of different psychological determinants of test motivation. It shows that (a) students’ introjected regulation predicts the value dimension and (b) students’ identified behavioural regulation and perseverance (as an essential aspect of grit) predict the effort dimension of test motivation.ConclusionsStudents’ motivation to master low-stakes tests represents an equally trait- and state-like construct—at least with respect to the investigated test format (paper–pencil), content (accounting) and examinee population (vocational students). Our finding that comparably stable motivational dispositions of students, namely person-specific types of behavioural regulation, achievement motivation, and grit, are highly predictive of their test motivation in multiple test situations implies that test motivation bias can be reduced substantially by controlling for general student motivation (in the relevant academic domain).

中文翻译：

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低风险测试情况下测试动机的心理决定因素：会计中单性态-多状态模型的纵向研究

背景虽然有几项研究表明，应试者的考试动机在低风险测试中偏向于他们的结果，但很少有人研究低水平考试时动机预测因素的研究。而且，关于测试动机是代表状态还是特征构成的证据很少。对这些问题的研究需要统计模型，该模型能够在一系列测试情况下区分动机的个体差异和个体内部差异。本研究位于职业学校，旨在解释职业学生低风险考试动机的变化。我们借鉴Urhahne（Psychologische Rundschau 59：150–166，2008. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042.59.3.150）动机理论在学术学习背景下的综合以证实潜在的预测因素。由于我们专注于与人相关的特征，因此相关的预测因素包括自我决定/外部行为调节，成就动机，学术自我概念和勇气的类型。与Eccles等人一致。（见：Spence JT（eds）成就和成就动机：心理和社会学方法。弗里曼，旧金山，第109-132页，1983年）和桑德雷（学生意见量表（SOS）。考生动机的量度：测试手册。 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238741273_The_Student_Opinion_Scale_SOS，2007），我们进一步将每个测试的价值归因和投入的努力视为测试动机的两个独立维度。方法实证分析利用纵向问卷和学生的测试绩效数据（N = 852）来自全日制职业学校，在每个学年结束时（共5年）反复参加低风险会计测试的学生。潜在单性状-多状态（STMS）模型可用来解开学生的测试动机的特质和状态组成部分，以及它们与假定的预测变量的特质和状态组成部分的关联。结果来自STMS模型的发现表明，大约。学生考试动机变化的30％随时间推移是稳定的，而大约 25％归因于测试情况，导致45％的剩余方差很大。双变量STMS分析表明，学生的成就动机和行为调节类型可以预测其测试动机的价值维度。这种模式出现在所研究结构的特征状组件中（此处：时不变，特定于人员的预测指标和标准水平）以及类似状态的组成部分（此处：个体内部预测指标和标准的上升或下降）。关于测试动机的努力维度，特质样成分之间出现了相似的关联。行为调节类型和成就动机可以积极地预测学生的自我报告的努力。而且，与价值维度相反，学生的毅力在预测考试成绩时起着至关重要的作用。最后，估计了仅拦截的多元增长模型，以分析测试动机的不同心理决定因素的相对贡献。它表明（a）学生的内向性调节预测了价值维度，（b）学生的行为性调节和毅力（作为毅力的重要方面）预测了测试动机的努力维度。结论学生掌握低风险测试的动机。至少在被调查的考试形式（纸笔），内容（会计）和应试者（职业学生）方面代表着一种特质和状态。我们的发现表明，学生的动机分配相对稳定，即特定于人的行为调节类型，成就动机和勇气，