Exercise is good for you!! That's the consensus with many studies and professional organizations such as the American Heart Association, the American College of Sports Medicine, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services strongly supporting that contention for children and adults. But what about exercise for pregnant women? Gone are the times when exercise was frowned upon for pregnant women because it might harm the pregnancy (Downs, Chasan‐Taber, Evenson, Leiferman, & Yeo, 2012). Our current enlightened view is that exercise is good for the health of pregnant women and also their children, before and after birth. Certified exercise professionals can even continue to lead moderate to vigorous classes right up to the day of birth with no untoward consequences (Clapp, 2000; Sigurdardottir et al., 2019). In fact, exercise seems to alleviate many of the negative symptoms of pregnancy for the mother from nausea, excessive weight gain, gestational diabetes, to post‐partum depression (Hinman, Smith, Quillen, & Smith, 2015; Nagpal & Mottola, 2020). Exercising pregnant moms also seem to have easier births (Perales et al., 2016; Rodríguez‐Blanque, Sánchez‐García, Sánchez‐López, & Aguilar‐Cordero, 2019; Wadhwa, Alghadir, & Iqbal, 2020) and smarter, healthier babies (Blaize, Pearson, & Newcomer, 2015; Clapp, 1996; Moyer, Reoyo, & May, 2016). Surprising are the findings that the father can contribute to improving the pregnancy outcomes by exercising prior to conception (Kusuyama, Alves‐Wagner, Makarewicz, & Goodyear, 2020).

There are intriguing animal studies supporting the benefits of exercise on the immediate and long term pregnancy outcomes for both the mother and offspring. In one such study using transgenic mice that are prone to give birth to offspring with congenital heart defects (CHDs), Dr. Jay and colleagues (Schulkey et al., 2015) showed that voluntary wheel‐running activity of older pregnant female mice could reduce the number with CHDs among their offspring. Another study in a mouse model of pregestational diabetes found maternal voluntary wheel running reduced CHDs among their offspring (Saiyin et al., 2019). It is much harder to do such definitive studies in a controlled way on pregnant women and their offspring.

In this special issue, we present a broad range of topics relevant to “exercise during pregnancy” including two letters to the editor regarding the guidelines for exercise programs during pregnancy proposed by Barakat (in this issue). The authors have approached this theme in a variety of ways.

Dr. May and colleagues conducted two exercise studies (McDonald et al. a and b, in this issue) on one of the most challenging cohorts to study, pregnant women. Unlike rodents, who love to run and voluntarily exercise on a running wheel when given the chance even when pregnant, humans tend to be harder to motivate to exercise. Add to that human tendency, the effects of pregnancy. Despite these hurdles, May and colleagues conducted a prospective, randomized controlled trial study on pregnant women in a region of North Carolina and found that supervised moderate exercise (150 min per week for more than 24 weeks) during pregnancy can have positive effects on the infants 1 month after birth. The control cohort of pregnant women also went to the gym, but had standing or sitting stretching sessions and breathing exercises instead of, as their experimental counterparts did, working out on a treadmill, stationary bike, elliptical machine, rowing and/or stair‐stepping equipment. The infants born to the exercised mothers had lower skinfold thickness and percent body fat at 1 month. These results are associated with a reduced risk for obesity for these infants in their later years. This extended and expanded the studies done previously that showed that exercising pregnant women gave birth to neonates with lower birth weights (Davenport et al., 2018; Wiebe, Boulé, Chari, & Davenport, 2015) and suggests a persistent positive effect on the 1 month old infants. Longitudinal studies of these infants into adulthood could be very important to show the positive trajectory continues. The second study (McDonald et al., b in this issue) showed that a similar exercise program also improved the health of the women themselves. For this study, participants were recruited in North Carolina and Spain as part of the ENHANCED by MOM study and GESTAFIT program, respectively. The supervised and monitored aerobically trained women had many blood parameters measured. At mid‐pregnancy the aerobic exercise group had better lipid profiles than the controls and at both time points had significantly lower blood insulin levels and less insulin resistance. This is a sign that the metabolic environment in utero was improved and could have a positive impact on the health of the mother as well as on the developing embryo or fetus (Derraik et al., 2020; Yamashita et al., 2014). The strength of these studies was that they did not rely on self‐reporting to measure exercise participation, but carefully supervised and monitored the activities. These types of studies are valuable for crystallizing exercise recommendations to optimize the health of pregnant women and their children.

Dr. Barakat (in this issue) details a supervised exercise program specifically designed for pregnant women, complete with many pictures. This program recommends various modifications of the exercises to accommodate the changes in the pregnant woman and protect them from stresses and strains throughout their pregnancy (Figure 1). Physiological changes are experienced by pregnant women such as the laxity of joints, alterations in balance as the fetus grows, and breathing rhythms. These changes should be considered in designing an exercise regimen. Exercising under the guidance of exercise professionals with special knowledge of the needs of pregnant women is ideal. However, as indicated in the two letters to the editors by Drs. Ruart and Antoine‐Jonville and Mr. Fiutem (in this issue), not everyone has access to this ideal situation for exercising. Socioeconomic status, geography, limited time, and the limited availability of trained experts may preclude attending supervised exercise classes for pregnant women in a gym with the proper equipment. In those cases, minimally supervised exercise or activity such as walking (Figure 2) can be effective in achieving and even surpassing the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommendation of a minimum of 150 min of moderate exercise per week. The internet and telemedicine could also provide remote supervision, support, and frequent assessment for pregnant women as well.

Cardiopulmonary Exercise (CPX) testing is a standard and objective way in which health risk and aerobic capacity is assessed in adults and children. CPX is not commonly employed during pregnancy and pregnancy specific guidance for CPX has not been developed. However, emerging research has suggested CPX is useful in “identifying underlying cardiopulmonary conditions, stratifying the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, as well as establishing exercise tolerance/limitation” (Wowdzia and Davenport, in this issue). As research in this area is expected to substantially increase in the coming years, Ms. Wowdzia and Dr. Davenport provide guidance should the CPX test need to be performed on pregnant women. Many measures of physiology change dramatically during the course of a pregnancy. This must be considered and the CPX test must be adapted and interpreted differently for pregnant women. Current guidelines deserve an update with the addition of more detail. For example, resting heart rate increases during a healthy pregnancy. For this reason, heart rates above 99 might not be considered tachycardia for a pregnant woman. Therefore, the cut‐off for limiting exercise during pregnancy could be raised from 99 to 120 beats per minute. Extending warm‐up and cool‐down time is also recommended to compensate for pregnant women having less ability to adjust to starting and stopping exercise. Maximal CPX testing has been conducted on pregnant women during their third trimester. CPX may be valuable when using exercise during pregnancy as a therapy to improve pregnancy outcomes and promote a healthy birth and neonate. CPX is not as widely used as it is in the general population. Authors suggest that more research is needed to have it be more widely accepted for pregnant women.

To study the effect of exercise on pregnant women, you need baseline data on the physiology of pregnant women which is hard to come by and the available data are not consistent across studies. Dr. Adamo and colleagues (Dobson et al., in this issue) provide data to fill that gap by following 22 healthy women throughout their pregnancy. Data were captured at early, mid‐, and late pregnancy, while the women performed the Submaximal incremental Walking Exercise Test (SWET), a 21‐min progressive walking test on a treadmill. As you would expect, physiological parameters changed as the pregnancy proceeded. Overall, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and submaximal absolute oxygen uptake were higher in late pregnancy compared to early and/or mid‐ pregnancy. Physiological/perceptual responses to exercise at late pregnancy were associated with physical activity behaviors measured by accelerometry, gestational weight gain, pre‐pregnancy BMI, and age. The authors state “Our findings can be used to inform exercise prescription and design for future PA (physical activity) interventions for pregnant women including the use of submaximal exercise responses as markers of cardiorespiratory fitness.” The authors also attempted to capture physical activity out of the laboratory by asking participants to wear an accelerometer for 7 days while at home. This study was a part of the Physical ACtivity and diEtary implicatioNs Throughout pregnAncy (PLACENTA) Study.

There is promising data that exercise can be an effective part of the care that adolescents and adults receive to stop and avoid substance use namely smoking, illicit drug use (opioids, heroin, cocaine), marijuana (cannabis) use, and excessive alcohol consumption (Ashdown‐Franks et al., 2020; Dai, Chen, Richardson, & Gordon, 2020). Dr. Adamo and colleagues (Nagpal et al., in this issue) wondered if this tactic could also work on reducing substance use disorders in women before or during pregnancy when the stakes are high for both the mother and the unborn child. It is estimated that “1–5% of pregnancies around the world are affected by substance‐use disorders”(Nagpal et al., citing data from NIDA, CCSA, WHO). The clinical recommendation for alcohol use during pregnancy is complete abstinence, as no level of alcohol consumption is known to be safe during pregnancy [recommendation of abstinence from the CDC, AAP, U.S. Surgeon General]. The literature is sparse on this topic of using exercise to control substance abuse in pregnant women, nonetheless the authors found a handful of human and rodent studies that provide encouraging findings. Although the authors found no studies using exercise as an adjuvant therapy option for pregnant substance use disorders, they did find that these women are amenable to engaging in an exercise program during their pregnancy. This suggests that there might be willing subjects for future studies.

They also found studies that the use of drugs such as methadone can change the physiological responses of pregnant women to exercise. This finding is important in designing future studies. Animal studies that the authors reviewed did not focus on the effects of exercise on the behavior and health of the pregnant animal, but rather on the behavioral outcomes for offspring which were positive. Thus, adding exercise to the treatment plan for women with substance use disorders before or during pregnancy could help both the mother and the child through many mechanisms. The topic is worthy of further studies.

Dr. Volpato and his colleagues (Soares et al., in this special issue) reveal the difficulties in finding the appropriate exercise protocol in animal models to study the effects (and possible risks) of exercise during pregnancy complicated by diabetes. They decreased swimming time compared to previous studies to see if exercise could prevent the effects of the hyperglycemic environment in a milder model of diabetes induced in rats. When neonatal mice are exposed to a chemical isolated from a species of bacterium called streptozotocin, pancreatic beta cells die, but regenerate to some extent, resulting in a milder form of diabetes than when streptozotocin is injected into adult animals (Inhasz Kiss et al., 2013). The swimming protocol with reduced time did not improve parameters in the milder hyperglycemic environment and, in fact, caused some developmental defects in the rat fetuses. Whether this study translates to humans, has not be determined. There are currently specific guidelines being created for women with gestational diabetes (Padayachee, 2015), one of the most common complications of pregnancy that continues to increase in prevalence worldwide. However, establishing the guidelines will require more studies of pregnant women to determine the “type, intensity, and duration of exercise in preventing” gestational diabetes mellitus which is known to negatively impact the health of the pregnant mother and her child (Nasiri‐Amiri, Sepidarkish, Shirvani, Habibipour, & Tabari, 2019).

Can exercise save the developing brain from effects of alcohol exposure? Milbocker and Klintsova (in this issue) considered the damage that alcohol exposure can inflict on cholinergic neurons and reasoned that behavioral interventions that upregulate cholinergic neurotransmission might help. They remind us that the “mammalian brain cholinergic system is the largest continuous aggregate of neurons in the central nervous system.” The rats exposed to alcohol during a rapid period of brain growth were presented as adults to running wheels that they voluntarily used (unlike most humans) followed by exposure to a complex environment where they could climb and enter all sorts of containers, tubes, and hammocks within a multi‐level cage combined with exposure to a changing assortment of colorful “toys” of all shapes and sizes (Gursky & Klintsova, 2017). The wheel running represents aerobic physical exercising while the complex environment could be considered brain exercising that might also enhance activity. While this group's previous findings showed promise that this combination of interventions termed “super interventions” improves many other outcomes of alcohol exposure, it was not reflected in normalizing the microanatomical parameters of the cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM), the source of cortical cholinergic input, and prefrontal cortex (PFC) in adult rat brains.

运动对你有好处！！这是许多研究和专业组织的共识，例如美国心脏协会、美国运动医学学院和美国卫生与公共服务部，强烈支持针对儿童和成人的这一论点。但是孕妇的运动呢？孕妇因运动可能会伤害怀孕而反对运动的时代已经一去不复返了（Downs、Chasan-Taber、Evenson、Leiferman 和 Yeo，2012 年）。我们目前的开明观点是，锻炼对孕妇及其孩子的健康有益，无论是产前还是产后。经过认证的运动专业人士甚至可以继续进行中等强度到高强度的课程直到出生那天，而不会产生任何不良后果（Clapp，2000; Sigurdardottir 等人，2019 年）。事实上，运动似乎可以减轻母亲怀孕的许多负面症状，从恶心、体重增加过多、妊娠糖尿病到产后抑郁症 (Hinman, Smith, Quillen, & Smith, 2015 ; Nagpal & Mottola, 2020 ) . 锻炼的孕妇似乎也更容易分娩（Perales 等人，2016 年；Rodríguez-Blanque、Sánchez-García、Sánchez-López 和 Aguilar-Cordero，2019 年；Wadhwa、Alghadir 和 Iqbal，2020 年出生的婴儿更健康、更聪明） （Blaize、Pearson 和 Newcomer，2015 年；Clapp，1996 年；Moyer、Reoyo 和 May，2016 年）。令人惊讶的发现是，父亲可以通过在受孕前锻炼来改善怀孕结果（Kusuyama、Alves-Wagner、Makarewicz 和 Goodyear，2020 年）。

有一些有趣的动物研究支持运动对母亲和后代的近期和长期妊娠结果的益处。在一项使用容易生出先天性心脏病 (CHD) 后代的转基因小鼠的此类研究中，Jay 博士及其同事（Schulkey 等人，2015 年）表明，年龄较大的怀孕雌性小鼠的自愿轮跑活动可以减少其后代中患有 CHD 的人数。另一项对孕前糖尿病小鼠模型的研究发现，母亲自愿跑轮减少了后代的冠心病（Saiyin et al., 2019）。以受控方式对孕妇及其后代进行此类确定性研究要困难得多。

在本期特刊中，我们介绍了与“孕期锻炼”相关的广泛主题，包括写给编辑的两封信，内容涉及 Barakat 提出的孕期锻炼计划指南（在本期中）。作者以多种方式接近这个主题。

May 博士及其同事针对最具挑战性的研究队列之一孕妇进行了两项运动研究（McDonald 等人，在本期中的 a 和 b）。与喜欢跑步并在有机会甚至怀孕时自愿在跑轮上锻炼的啮齿动物不同，人类往往更难以激励锻炼。再加上人类的倾向，怀孕的影响。尽管存在这些障碍，May 及其同事对北卡罗来纳州的一个地区的孕妇进行了一项前瞻性、随机对照试验研究，发现怀孕期间有监督的适度运动（每周 150 分钟，持续 24 周以上）可以对婴儿产生积极影响出生后1个月。对照组的孕妇也去健身房，但有站立或坐着的伸展运动和呼吸练习，而不是，就像他们的实验对手一样，在跑步机、固定自行车、椭圆机、划船和/或楼梯设备上锻炼。锻炼母亲所生的婴儿在 1 个月时具有较低的皮褶厚度和体脂百分比。这些结果与这些婴儿晚年肥胖的风险降低有关。这扩展并扩展了先前进行的研究，这些研究表明，锻炼孕妇会​​生下出生体重较低的新生儿（Davenport 等人，2018 年；Wiebe、Boulé、Chari 和 Davenport，2015 年) 并建议对 1 个月大的婴儿产生持续的积极影响。对这些婴儿进入成年期的纵向研究对于表明积极的轨迹仍在继续非常重要。第二项研究（McDonald 等人，本期 b）表明，类似的锻炼计划也改善了女性自身的健康状况。对于这项研究，参与者分别在北卡罗来纳州和西班牙招募，作为 MOM 研究和 GESTAFIT 计划的一部分。受监督和监测的有氧训练妇女测量了许多血液参数。在怀孕中期，有氧运动组的血脂状况比对照组更好，并且在两个时间点的血胰岛素水平都显着降低，胰岛素抵抗也更小。2020 年；山下等人，2014 年）。这些研究的优势在于它们不依赖于自我报告来衡量运动参与，而是仔细监督和监测活动。这些类型的研究对于明确锻炼建议以优化孕妇及其孩子的健康很有价值。

Barakat 博士（在本期中）详细介绍了专为孕妇设计的有监督的锻炼计划，并附有许多图片。该计划建议对练习进行各种修改，以适应孕妇的变化，并保护她们在整个怀孕期间免受压力和拉伤（图 1）。孕妇会经历生理变化，例如关节松弛、随着胎儿的生长平衡发生变化以及呼吸节律。在设计锻炼方案时应考虑这些变化。在对孕妇需求有特殊了解的运动专业人士的指导下进行锻炼是理想的。然而，正如 Drs 给编辑的两封信中所指出的那样。Ruart 和 Antoine-Jonville 以及 Fuitem 先生（在本期中），并不是每个人都能获得这种理想的锻炼环境。社会经济状况、地理、有限的时间和受过训练的专家的有限可用性可能会妨碍孕妇在配备适当设备的健身房参加有监督的运动课程。在这些情况下，最低限度监督的运动或活动（例如步行）（图 2）可以有效地实现甚至超过美国妇产科医师学会 (ACOG) 每周至少 150 分钟的适度运动的建议。互联网和远程医疗还可以为孕妇提供远程监督、支持和频繁评估。最少监督的运动或活动（例如步行）（图 2）可以有效地实现甚至超过美国妇产科医师学会 (ACOG) 建议的每周至少 150 分钟的适度运动。互联网和远程医疗还可以为孕妇提供远程监督、支持和频繁评估。最少监督的运动或活动（例如步行）（图 2）可以有效地实现甚至超过美国妇产科医师学会 (ACOG) 建议的每周至少 150 分钟的适度运动。互联网和远程医疗还可以为孕妇提供远程监督、支持和频繁评估。

心肺运动 (CPX) 测试是评估成人和儿童健康风险和有氧能力的标准和客观方法。CPX 在怀孕期间并不常用，并且尚未制定针对 CPX 的怀孕特定指南。然而，新兴研究表明 CPX 可用于“识别潜在的心肺疾病、对不良妊娠结果的风险进行分层以及建立运动耐量/限制”（Wowdzia 和 Davenport，在本期中）。由于预计未来几年该领域的研究将大幅增加，因此如果需要对孕妇进行 CPX 测试，Wowdzia 女士和 Davenport 博士将提供指导。在怀孕期间，许多生理指标会发生巨大变化。必须考虑到这一点，并且必须针对孕妇对 CPX 测试进行调整和不同的解释。当前指南值得更新，增加更多细节。例如，在健康怀孕期间静息心率会增加。因此，对于孕妇来说，心率高于 99 可能不被视为心动过速。因此，怀孕期间限制运动的临界值可以从每分钟 99 次提高到 120 次。还建议延长热身和放松时间，以弥补孕妇对开始和停止运动的适应能力较差的情况。已在妊娠晚期对孕妇进行了最大 CPX 测试。当在怀孕期间使用锻炼作为改善妊娠结果并促进健康出生和新生儿的治疗时，CPX 可能很有价值。CPX 不像在一般人群中那样广泛使用。作者建议需要更多的研究才能让它更广泛地被孕妇接受。

要研究运动对孕妇的影响，您需要有关孕妇生理机能的基线数据，这很难获得，而且可用数据在不同研究中并不一致。Adamo 博士及其同事（Dobson 等人，在本期中）通过跟踪 22 名健康女性在整个怀孕期间提供的数据来填补这一空白。数据在怀孕早期、中期和晚期采集，同时女性进行次极量增量步行运动测试 (SWET)，这是在跑步机上进行的 21 分钟渐进式步行测试。正如您所料，随着怀孕的进行，生理参数发生了变化。总体而言，与妊娠早期和/或中期相比，妊娠晚期的心率、感知到的劳累程度和次最大绝对摄氧量更高。妊娠晚期对运动的生理/知觉反应与通过加速度计、孕期体重增加、孕前 BMI 和年龄测量的身体活动行为相关。作者表示：“我们的研究结果可用于为孕妇未来的 PA（身体活动）干预提供锻炼处方和设计，包括使用次最大运动反应作为心肺健康的标志。” 作者还试图通过要求参与者在家中佩戴加速度计 7 天来捕捉实验室外的身体活动。该研究是整个孕期身体活动和饮食影响 (PLACETA) 研究的一部分。作者表示：“我们的研究结果可用于为孕妇未来的 PA（身体活动）干预提供锻炼处方和设计，包括使用次最大运动反应作为心肺健康的标志。” 作者还试图通过要求参与者在家中佩戴加速度计 7 天来捕捉实验室外的身体活动。该研究是整个孕期身体活动和饮食影响 (PLACETA) 研究的一部分。作者表示：“我们的研究结果可用于为孕妇未来的 PA（身体活动）干预提供锻炼处方和设计，包括使用次最大运动反应作为心肺健康的标志。” 作者还试图通过要求参与者在家中佩戴加速度计 7 天来捕捉实验室外的身体活动。该研究是整个孕期身体活动和饮食影响 (PLACETA) 研究的一部分。

有希望的数据表明，锻炼可以成为青少年和成人停止和避免物质使用的有效组成部分，即吸烟、非法药物使用（阿片类药物、海洛因、可卡因）、大麻（大麻）使用和过度饮酒。 Ashdown-Franks 等人，2020 年；戴、陈、理查森和戈登，2020 年）。Adamo 博士及其同事（Nagpal 等人，在本期中）想知道这种策略是否也可以用于减少女性在怀孕前或怀孕期间的物质使用障碍，因为这对母亲和未出生的孩子都具有很高的风险。据估计，“全世界 1-5% 的怀孕受到物质使用障碍的影响”（Nagpal 等，引用来自 NIDA、CCSA、WHO 的数据）。怀孕期间饮酒的临床建议是完全戒酒，因为已知在怀孕期间没有安全的饮酒量 [CDC、AAP、美国外科医生的戒酒建议]。关于使用运动控制孕妇药物滥用这一主题的文献很少，尽管如此，作者发现少数人类和啮齿动物研究提供了令人鼓舞的发现。尽管作者没有发现使用运动作为孕妇物质使用障碍的辅助治疗选择的研究，但他们确实发现这些妇女在怀孕期间适合参加运动计划。这表明未来研究可能有愿意的科目。

他们还发现研究表明，使用美沙酮等药物可以改变孕妇对运动的生理反应。这一发现对设计未来的研究很重要。作者审查的动物研究并未关注运动对怀孕动物的行为和健康的影响，而是关注对后代积极的行为结果。因此，在怀孕前或怀孕期间为患有物质使用障碍的女性制定治疗计划时，可以通过多种机制帮助母亲和孩子。这个话题值得进一步研究。

Volpato 博士和他的同事（Soares 等人，在本期特刊中）揭示了在动物模型中寻找合适的运动方案以研究妊娠合并糖尿病的运动的影响（和可能的风险）的困难。与之前的研究相比，他们减少了游泳时间，以观察运动是否可以防止高血糖环境对大鼠诱导的较温和糖尿病模型的影响。当新生小鼠接触一种从一种叫做链脲佐菌素的细菌中分离出来的化学物质时，胰腺 β 细胞会死亡，但在一定程度上会再生，导致比将链脲佐菌素注射到成年动物中时更轻微的糖尿病形式（Inhasz Kiss 等人，2013年）。在较温和的高血糖环境中，缩短时间的游泳方案并没有改善参数，事实上，导致了大鼠胎儿的一些发育缺陷。这项研究是否适用于人类，尚未确定。目前正在为患有妊娠糖尿病的女性制定具体的指南（Padayachee，2015 年），这是一种最常见的妊娠并发症，在全球范围内的患病率持续增加。然而，制定指南将需要对孕妇进行更多研究，以确定“预防妊娠糖尿病的类型、强度和持续时间”，众所周知，妊娠糖尿病会对孕妇及其孩子的健康产生负面影响（Nasiri-Amiri， Sepidarkish、Shirvani、Habibipour 和 Tabari，2019 年）。

锻炼可以使发育中的大脑免受酒精暴露的影响吗？Milbocker 和 Klintsova（在本期中）考虑了酒精暴露会对胆碱能神经元造成的损害，并推断上调胆碱能神经传递的行为干预可能会有所帮助。他们提醒我们“哺乳动物脑胆碱能系统是中枢神经系统中最大的连续神经元聚集体”。在大脑快速发育期间暴露于酒精的大鼠在成年后被带到他们自愿使用的轮子上（与大多数人不同），然后暴露于复杂的环境中，在那里他们可以攀爬并进入各种容器、管道和吊床在一个多层次的笼子里，暴露在各种形状和大小的彩色“玩具”中（Gursky & Klintsova，2017 年）。轮子跑代表有氧运动，而复杂的环境可以被认为是大脑锻炼，这也可能会增强活动。虽然该小组之前的研究结果表明，这种称为“超级干预”的干预措施组合改善了酒精暴露的许多其他结果，但并未反映在使 Meynert 基底核 (NBM) 中胆碱能神经元的微观解剖参数正常化上，来源皮层胆碱能输入和成年大鼠大脑中的前额叶皮层 (PFC)。