Common approaches to reverse the trend of tropical deforestation and loss of wildlife include systems of protected areas (PAs) such as national parks, payments for ecosystem services programs (PES) that provide financial reward to landowners protecting their forests, and ecotourism that attempts to increase local economic gains and protect biodiversity while minimizing detrimental ecological effects from tourists. For example, Costa Rica successfully reversed deforestation by restoring forest cover from 24.4% in 1985 to >50% by 2011 through implementation of national environmental protection policies in the 1990s that included a portfolio of PAs, PES, and ecotourism. However, the social-ecological effectiveness of this conservation portfolio in terms of interactions between deforestation, biodiversity, and community participation is not clear across local scales. Therefore, we conducted multitemporal geospatial analysis to determine forest cover change from 2001–2017, broad census surveys to determine primate species richness and group encounter rate, and surveyed private landowners to determine participation in PES and ecotourism across four regions of Costa Rica. Net forest loss varied seven-fold across regions and occurred in both protected and non-protected areas across all regions from 2001–2017, although rates were lower inside PAs. Primate group encounter rate varied significantly across all regions with an 11-fold difference between the region with the most primates compared to the region with the least. All but one region contained the full community of primate species present. Participation in conservation incentives also varied seven-fold across regions, with those reporting the highest participation having the highest primate density and diversity, as well as the lowest deforestation rates. These results suggest that the most effective strategy to simultaneously curb tropical deforestation, protect primates, and ensure community benefits may depend on a complete portfolio of PAs, PES, and ecotourism, rather than a subset of these strategies. Future studies will explore finer scale differences and similarities across PA, PES, and ecotourism forests, including measures of primate physiology and behavior, forest structure, and pesticide exposure.

中文翻译：

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哥斯达黎加保护组合在减少森林砍伐、保护灵长类动物和增加社区参与方面的有效性

扭转热带森林砍伐和野生动植物丧失趋势的常见方法包括保护区 (PA) 系统，例如国家公园、为保护森林的土地所有者提供经济奖励的生态系统服务计划 (PES) 以及试图增加当地经济收益和保护生物多样性，同时最大限度地减少游客的不利生态影响。例如，哥斯达黎加通过在 1990 年代实施国家环境保护政策，包括 PA、PES 和生态旅游的组合，通过将森林覆盖率从 1985 年的 24.4% 恢复到 2011 年的 50% 以上，成功扭转了森林砍伐的趋势。然而，就森林砍伐、生物多样性、社区参与在地方范围内并不明确。因此，我们进行了多时态地理空间分析以确定 2001 年至 2017 年的森林覆盖变化，进行广泛的普查调查以确定灵长类动物物种丰富度和群体相遇率，并调查私人土地所有者以确定哥斯达黎加四个地区的 PES 和生态旅游参与情况。2001 年至 2017 年，尽管保护区内的森林净损失率较低，但不同地区的森林净损失变化达 7 倍，并且发生在所有地区的保护区和非保护区。灵长类动物群体遭遇率在所有地区都有显着差异，灵长类动物数量最多的地区与灵长类动物数量最少的地区之间存在 11 倍的差异。除了一个区域外，所有区域都包含存在的灵长类物种的完整群落。不同地区对保护激励措施的参与也有七倍的差异，参与度最高的那些灵长类动物的密度和多样性最高，森林砍伐率最低。这些结果表明，同时遏制热带森林砍伐、保护灵长类动物和确保社区利益的最有效策略可能取决于保护区、PES 和生态旅游的完整组合，而不是这些策略的一个子集。未来的研究将探索 PA、PES 和生态旅游森林之间更细微的差异和相似之处，包括灵长类动物生理和行为、森林结构和农药暴露的测量。这些结果表明，同时遏制热带森林砍伐、保护灵长类动物和确保社区利益的最有效策略可能取决于保护区、PES 和生态旅游的完整组合，而不是这些策略的一个子集。未来的研究将探索 PA、PES 和生态旅游森林之间更细微的差异和相似之处，包括灵长类动物生理和行为、森林结构和农药暴露的测量。这些结果表明，同时遏制热带森林砍伐、保护灵长类动物和确保社区利益的最有效策略可能取决于保护区、PES 和生态旅游的完整组合，而不是这些策略的一个子集。未来的研究将探索 PA、PES 和生态旅游森林之间更细微的差异和相似之处，包括灵长类动物生理和行为、森林结构和农药暴露的测量。