The field of organoid engineering promises to revolutionize medicine with wide‐ranging applications of scientific, engineering, and clinical interest, including precision and personalized medicine, gene editing, drug development, disease modelling, cellular therapy, and human development. Organoids are a three‐dimensional (3D) miniature representation of a target organ, are initiated with stem/progenitor cells, and are extremely promising tools with which to model organ function. The biological basis for organoids is that they foster stem cell self‐renewal, differentiation, and self‐organization, recapitulating 3D tissue structure or function better than two‐dimensional (2D) systems. In this review, we first discuss the importance of epithelial organs and the general properties of epithelial cells to provide a context and rationale for organoids of the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder. Next, we develop a general framework to understand self‐organization, tissue hierarchy, and organoid cultivation. For each of these areas, we provide a historical context, and review a wide range of both biological and mathematical perspectives that enhance understanding of organoids. Next, we review existing techniques and progress in hepatobiliary and pancreatic organoid engineering. To do this, we review organoids from primary tissues, cell lines, and stem cells, and introduce engineering studies when applicable. We discuss non‐invasive assessment of organoids, which can reveal the underlying biological mechanisms and enable improved assays for growth, metabolism, and function. Applications of organoids in cell therapy are also discussed. Taken together, we establish a broad scientific foundation for organoids and provide an in‐depth review of hepatic, biliary and pancreatic organoids.

中文翻译：

---

干细胞衍生类器官的科学与工程——肝、胆和胰腺组织的例子

类器官工程领域有望通过科学、工程和临床兴趣的广泛应用彻底改变医学，包括精准和个性化医学、基因编辑、药物开发、疾病建模、细胞治疗和人类发展。类器官是目标器官的三维 (3D) 微型表示，由干细胞/祖细胞启动，是模拟器官功能的极有前途的工具。类器官的生物学基础是它们促进干细胞自我更新、分化和自我组织，比二维 (2D) 系统更好地重现 3D 组织结构或功能。在这次审查中，我们首先讨论上皮器官的重要性和上皮细胞的一般特性，为肝脏、胰腺和胆囊的类器官提供背景和基本原理。接下来，我们开发了一个通用框架来理解自组织、组织层次结构和类器官培养。对于这些领域中的每一个，我们都提供了历史背景，并回顾了广泛的生物学和数学观点，以增强对类器官的理解。接下来，我们回顾了肝胆和胰腺类器官工程的现有技术和进展。为此，我们审查了来自原代组织、细胞系和干细胞的类器官，并在适用时引入了工程研究。我们讨论了类器官的非侵入性评估，它可以揭示潜在的生物学机制并改进生长检测，新陈代谢, 功能. 还讨论了类器官在细胞治疗中的应用。总之，我们为类器官建立了广泛的科学基础，并对肝脏、胆管和胰腺类器官进行了深入审查。