This article demonstrates a novel technique for watermarking commercial off-the-shelf NAND flash memory chips. The technique uses repeated program-erase stressing to selectively control the physical properties of the flash cells and hence imprint watermark information into the flash media in an irreversible manner. It is accompanied by a watermark reading method that uses program disturb effects to extract the physical properties of flash memory cells containing watermark. The experimental evaluation, using several commercial flash memory chips, shows that the proposed technique offers robust watermarks that cannot be easily altered using fault injection attacks such as localized heating. We demonstrate a low bit error rate (<1%) in the retrieved watermark data and moderately high-speed watermark imprinting ( $\approx 1$ kb/s) and watermark retrieval ( $\approx 32$ kb/s). The proposed technique does not require any hardware modifications, making it a cost-effective anticounterfeit solution for a wide range of NAND-flash-based storage products.

中文翻译：

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闪存水印：一种针对NAND闪存的防伪技术

本文展示了一种为商用现成 NAND 闪存芯片加水印的新技术。该技术使用重复的编程擦除压力来选择性地控制闪存单元的物理特性，从而以不可逆的方式将水印信息压印到闪存介质中。它伴随着一种水印读取方法，该方法利用程序干扰效应来提取包含水印的闪存单元的物理特性。使用几种商用闪存芯片进行的实验评估表明，所提出的技术提供了强大的水印，使用故障注入攻击（例如局部加热）无法轻易改变这些水印。我们在检索到的水印数据中证明了低误码率（<1%）和中等高速的水印压印（ $\约1$ kb/s) 和水印检索 ( $\约 32$ 千字节/秒）。所提出的技术不需要任何硬件修改，使其成为适用于各种基于 NAND 闪存的存储产品的经济高效的防伪解决方案。