The Kangchenjunga Landscape, an important repository of biodiversity, faces several challenges owing to various drivers of change. Human‒wildlife conflict (HWC) is one of such issue that transcends social, economic, environmental, as well as national and international borders among the three participating countries – Bhutan, India, and Nepal – making it a complex, transboundary issue. Based on the existing literature, earth observation data, and geographic information system, we used maximum entropy along with relevant environmental predictor variables to model and map HWC hotspots. The results suggested that about 19 per cent of the area within the landscape is at high risk of human‒wildlife conflict, with an anthropogenic factor ‒ distance to roads ‒ as the top predictor. Some protected areas are at higher risk than others. The Himalayan subtropical pine forest ecoregion is a high HWC zone (~63 per cent), followed by the Terai‒Duars savannah and grasslands ecoregion (~43 per cent). They also revealed that the low- and mid-elevation zones are prone to conflict due to greater forest fragmentation; patchy protected areas are disconnected from each other, and not big enough for large mammals like elephants and tigers. Human-wildlife conflict is observed to vary across different elevation and climate region of the landscape and highly correlated with forest fragmentation of the midhills. Hence, a holistic approach at the landscape level is needed for tackling human‒wildlife conflict. Connecting good habitats by restoring fragmented inter and intra-country areas would be an effective measure to mitigate human‒wildlife conflict.

由于各种变化的驱动因素，重要的生物多样性资料库——Kangchenjunga景观面临着若干挑战。人类野生动植物冲突（HWC）是跨越不丹，印度和尼泊尔这三个参与国之间的社会，经济，环境以及国家和国际边界的问题之一，这使其成为一个复杂的跨界问题。基于现有文献，地球观测数据和地理信息系统，我们使用最大熵以及相关的环境预测变量对HWC热点进行建模和映射。结果表明，景观中约有19％的地区存在人类与野生动植物冲突的高风险，其中人为因素（距道路的距离）是最主要的预测指标。一些保护区的风险要高于其他保护区。喜马拉雅亚热带松树林生态区是高HWC区（约63％），其次是Terai‒Duars大草原和草地生态区（约43％）。他们还发现，由于森林破碎化加剧，低海拔和中等海拔地区容易发生冲突。零散的保护区彼此断开，不足以容纳大象和老虎等大型哺乳动物。人们观察到人类与野生动物之间的冲突在不同的海拔高度和气候区域之间变化，并且与中山的森林破碎高度相关。因此，在景观层面需要一种整体方法来解决人类与野生动物的冲突。通过恢复零散的国家间和国家间区域来连接良好的栖息地，将是减轻人类野生动植物冲突的有效措施。