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Introduction to "The Trouble with Plastics" special issue.
Birth Defects Research ( IF 2.1 ) Pub Date : 2020-09-08 , DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1795
Michiko Watanabe 1 , John M Rogers 2
Affiliation  

Plastics surround us. If we move our gaze to what we use in our daily lives, there are plastics in many guises. We rely on them and would be hard pressed to live without them. Our cell phones, ear buds, credit cards, clothes, shoes, car parts, grocery bags, packaging, food containers, glasses, laboratory ware, water bottles, cigarette butts, linings metal cans, pens, medical tubing, laboratory supplies, fishing gear, toys, baby bottles, sippy cups, pacifiers, all are made up of plastics. The manufacture, use, and disposal of plastics release many long‐lasting chemicals into the environment that accumulate and negatively affect flora and fauna, as well as humans. As much as we need plastics, we also need to be aware of how they impact the environment, our health, and that of our children and their children.

The authors for this special issue have tackled the “trouble with plastics” from several points of view (Figure 1). We will learn many of the ways in which plastics negatively impact our health and induce birth defects, some that may not manifest until later life. These findings should motivate us to consider with some urgency what we can do to minimize or avoid the negative impact of plastics.

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FIGURE 1
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and cover picture. The manufacture, use, and disposal of plastics release numerous compounds into the environment and expose us to chemicals such as bisphenols and phthalates that can disrupt our health. Disintegrating plastics turn into microplastic particles that absorb and leach chemicals. These particles can be eaten by fish and clams and move up the food chain to humans. In utero exposure can occur when the pregnant mother eats, drinks, breathes, or absorbs these chemicals through her skin. These chemicals can, even at low concentrations, disturb the development of many systems, including the nervous and cardiovascular systems. Our most vulnerable population, pediatric and other patients in the hospital, have more exposure to chemicals that leach from tubing, blood bags, and other medical devices. The illustration on the cover and accompanying the introduction was created by Andrew Kay

Dr. Darbre (Darbre, in this issue) provides an overview of the many chemicals lurking in plastics. Bisphenol A and phthalates are added to plastics, leach from them, and disrupt many hormone systems. We breath them in, eat them, and absorb them through our skin. When we are exposed to these insidious endocrine‐disrupting chemicals at a vulnerable “window of susceptibility” in utero or during early life, consequences may arise later in life in the form of reproductive difficulties, metabolic disorders, thyroid dysfunction, immune dysregulation, adverse neurobehavioral outcomes, or cancer. Dr. Darbre urges further studies to fill the many gaps in our understanding regarding how these ubiquitous chemicals affect our health and that of generations to come.

Dr. Duttaroy and team (Basak et al., in this issue) lay out an extensive review of the compounds related to plastics that can, even at low concentrations, affect the development of animal models and likely that of humans. These include “bisphenols (BPA, BPS, BPF), bis(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate, and dibutyl phthalate (DBP)” and also “polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA).” Plastics‐derived endocrine‐disrupting compounds and their alternate “safer” substitutes are showing similar adversity on reproductive development in several studies. Animal studies expose that mechanisms of action of these chemicals that leach from plastics can disturb early embryonic and placental development. Evidence is accumulating that these chemicals act through long‐lasting epigenetic effects that may explain transgenerational effects.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups in 2012. We can congratulate ourselves for reducing our exposure to BPAs, yet its replacements, bisphenol‐F (BPF) and bisphenol‐S (BPS), may be worse! As the evidence mounts for the negative effects of these chemicals, intriguing questions come to mind. Could the rising levels of these compounds in humans account for the decline in sperm count and the rapid rise in obesity and metabolic disease?

Dr. Montor and his team (Segovia‐Meurdoza et al., in this issue; Solleiro‐Villavicencio et al., in this issue) supply us with the astonishing statistics about the plastic patches covering our planet. These plastic patches or islands are deep, and debris often sinks to the bottom of the ocean. Various animals ingest plastics, and they are ingested in turn up the food chain, eventually reaching large predators including humans. Aside from aesthetic considerations, these patches pose a threat to life in the oceans and to our health in many ways.

The two papers from this group also expand on the effects of BPA, phthalates, and other chemicals that are associated with plastics that affect the neuroendocrine (Solleiro‐Villavicencio et al., in this issue) and the immune (Segovia‐Meurdoza et al., in this issue) systems. While these systems are discussed separately, they overlap in their functions and affect many organs and systems in our bodies.

Our “complex regulatory neuroendocrine network” expresses receptors that BPA and phthalates can bind to and initiate disruptive responses and/or inhibit normal responses even at low concentrations. The links between exposure to these chemicals in utero and early life and neurobehavioral and cognitive dysfunction are also disturbing.

The authors also warn that, in studies of the immune system, “… many reports do not consider that the immune response must be studied by challenging the immune components, so there is little information about BPA effects on the immune response during disease.” This means that immune system deficiencies caused by BPA and phthalates exposure might be missed by studying basal conditions and that BPA and phthalate effects could be worse or more widespread than we suspect.

Dr. Posnack and colleagues (Ramadan et al., in this issue) alert us to the inadvertent hospital‐based chemical exposures through the use of plastic medical products, which can lead to cardiovascular consequences. Notably, phthalate concentrations accumulate over time in stored red blood cell units with di(2‐ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) levels increasing over time. Cardiopulmonary bypass is known to precipitate an inflammatory response, yet it is still unclear whether phthalate and bisphenol chemicals from the tubing circuitry may contribute to these effects. These distressing facts suggest that vulnerable pediatric populations are at increased risk for chemical exposures through lines and other medical devices.

Dr. Atay and colleagues (Atay et al., in this issue) describe how BPA affects early chicken embryo development. Key events at these stages are the closure of the neural tube and formation of somites. Both were disrupted by BPA exposure, and the overall growth of the embryo lagged. The puzzle here is that BPA is thought to act as an endocrine disruptor targeting steroid hormone receptors [estrogen receptor (ER), estrogen‐related receptor (ERR), and androgen receptor (AR)] (Asencio‐Hernández, Kieffer, & Delsuc, 2016) that are known to be expressed during gonad development but have not been reported in the neural tube or somites at this early stage. However, there is a report that these receptors are expressed in the extraembryonic membranes (Kumar, Lohrentz, Gahr, & Groothuis, 2019), suggesting an indirect effect through these membranes rather than a direct effect of BPA on the embryo. Atay et al. report the novel finding that AR and ER mRNAs are expressed on extraembryonic membranes (EMs) before the embryo begins its own hormone production, identifying a novel substrate for action of maternal hormones on the embryo.

Finished plastic products that end up in the environment, as well as chemicals released from plastics, are known to negatively affect human and animal health. This special issue provides insight into a number of known and potential health impacts of chemicals in plastics. The ongoing saga of BPA and bisphenol replacements can also be followed in an in‐progress special issue of Toxicology, to which articles continue to be added: https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/toxicology/special‐issue/10DGCJPVNJZ. The global problem of plastic manufacture, use, and disposal continues to receive much‐needed attention from regulatory bodies and consumer groups worldwide, incorporating new technologies.



中文翻译:

“塑料问题”特刊简介。

塑料围绕着我们。如果我们将目光转移到我们日常生活中使用的东西上,就会发现塑料有很多种形式。我们依赖他们,没有他们将很难生活。我们的手机、耳塞、信用卡、衣服、鞋子、汽车零件、杂货袋、包装、食品容器、眼镜、实验室器具、水瓶、烟头、金属罐内衬、钢笔、医疗管、实验室用品、渔具、玩具、奶瓶、吸管杯、奶嘴,都是塑料制成的。塑料的制造、使用和处置会将许多持久的化学物质释放到环境中,这些化学物质会积累并对动植物群以及人类产生负面影响。就像我们需要塑料一样,我们还需要了解它们如何影响环境、我们的健康以及我们的孩子和他们的孩子的健康。

本期特刊的作者从多个角度解决了“塑料问题”(图 1)。我们将了解塑料对我们的健康产生负面影响并导致先天缺陷的许多方式,其中一些可能要到晚年才会表现出来。这些发现应该激励我们紧急考虑我们可以做些什么来最小化或避免塑料的负面影响。

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图1
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和封面图。塑料的制造、使用和处置会将大量化合物释放到环境中,并使我们暴露于可能破坏我们健康的双酚和邻苯二甲酸盐等化学物质中。分解的塑料变成塑料微粒,可以吸收和浸出化学物质。这些颗粒可以被鱼和蛤蜊吃掉,并沿着食物链向上移动到人类。当怀孕的母亲吃、喝、呼吸或通过皮肤吸收这些化学物质时,就会发生在子宫内的暴露。这些化学物质即使浓度很低,也会干扰许多系统的发育,包括神经和心血管系统。我们最脆弱的人群、儿科和医院中的其他患者更容易接触到从管道、血袋和其他医疗设备中渗出的化学物质。

Darbre 博士(Darbre,在本期中)概述了潜伏在塑料中的许多化学物质。双酚 A 和邻苯二甲酸盐被添加到塑料中,从塑料中浸出,并破坏许多激素系统。我们吸入它们,吃掉它们,并通过我们的皮肤吸收它们。当我们在子宫内或生命早期在脆弱的“易感窗口”接触这些潜在的内分泌干扰化学物质时,可能会在生命后期以生殖困难、代谢紊乱、甲状腺功能障碍、免疫失调、不良神经行为等形式出现后果。结果,或癌症。Darbre 博士敦促进行进一步的研究,以填补我们对这些无处不在的化学物质如何影响我们和后代健康的理解中的许多空白。

Duttaroy 博士及其团队(Basak 等人,在本期中)对与塑料相关的化合物进行了广泛的审查,这些化合物即使在低浓度下也会影响动物模型的发育,甚至可能影响人类模型的发育。其中包括“双酚(BPA、BPS、BPF)、邻苯二甲酸双(2-乙基己基)酯和邻苯二甲酸二丁酯(DBP)”以及“多溴二苯醚(PBDE)和四溴双酚 A(TBBPA)”。在几项研究中,塑料衍生的内分泌干扰化合物及其替代“更安全”的替代品在生殖发育方面表现出类似的逆境。动物研究表明,从塑料中浸出的这些化学物质的作用机制会干扰早期胚胎和胎盘发育。越来越多的证据表明,这些化学物质通过持久的表观遗传效应起作用,这可以解释跨代效应。

美国食品和药物管理局 (FDA) 于 2012 年禁止在婴儿奶瓶和吸管杯中使用 BPA。我们可以祝贺自己减少了对 BPA 的接触,但它的替代品双酚 F (BPF) 和双酚 S (BPS) 可能会更糟!随着这些化学物质负面影响的证据越来越多,一些有趣的问题浮现在脑海中。人类体内这些化合物水平的上升能否解释精子数量的下降以及肥胖和代谢疾病的迅速增加?

Montor 博士和他的团队(Segovia-Meurdoza 等人,本期;Solleiro-Villavicencio 等人,本期)为我们提供了有关覆盖地球的塑料贴片的惊人统计数据。这些塑料补丁或岛屿很深,碎片经常沉入海底。各种动物都会摄入塑料,然后依次沿着食物链向上摄入,最终到达包括人类在内的大型捕食者。除了美学考虑之外,这些斑块在许多方面对海洋中的生命和我们的健康构成威胁。

该小组的两篇论文还扩展了双酚 A、邻苯二甲酸盐和其他与塑料相关的化学物质对神经内分泌(Solleiro-Villavicencio 等人,本期)和免疫(Segovia-Meurdoza 等人)的影响。 ,在本期)系统。虽然这些系统是单独讨论的,但它们的功能重叠并影响我们身体的许多器官和系统。

我们的“复杂的调节神经内分泌网络”表达了 BPA 和邻苯二甲酸盐可以结合并启动破坏性反应和/或抑制正常反应的受体,即使在低浓度下也是如此。在子宫内接触这些化学物质与生命早期与神经行为和认知功能障碍之间的联系也令人不安。

作者还警告说,在免疫系统研究中,“……许多报告并不认为必须通过挑战免疫成分来研究免疫反应,因此关于 BPA 在疾病期间对免疫反应的影响的信息很少。” 这意味着研究基础条件可能会忽略由 BPA 和邻苯二甲酸盐暴露引起的免疫系统缺陷,并且 BPA 和邻苯二甲酸盐的影响可能比我们怀疑的更糟或更普遍。

Posnack 博士及其同事(Ramadan 等人,在本期中)提醒我们注意通过使用塑料医疗产品而无意中接触到的基于医院的化学物质,这可能导致心血管后果。值得注意的是,邻苯二甲酸酯浓度会随着时间的推移在储存的红细胞单位中积累,而邻苯二甲酸二(2-乙基己基)酯 (DEHP) 的水平会随着时间的推移而增加。众所周知,体外循环会引发炎症反应,但目前尚不清楚来自管道回路的邻苯二甲酸盐和双酚化学物质是否会导致这些影响。这些令人不安的事实表明,易受伤害的儿科人群通过管道和其他医疗设备接触化学品的风险增加。

Atay 博士及其同事(Atay 等人,在本期中)描述了 BPA 如何影响早期鸡胚胎发育。这些阶段的关键事件是神经管的关闭和体节的形成。两者都受到 BPA 暴露的干扰,胚胎的整体生长滞后。这里的难题是,BPA 被认为是一种针对类固醇激素受体 [雌激素受体 (ER)、雌激素相关受体 (ERR) 和雄激素受体 (AR)] 的内分泌干扰物 (Asencio-Hernández, Kieffer, & Delsuc, 2016 ) 已知在性腺发育过程中表达,但在这个早期阶段尚未在神经管或体节中报道。然而,有报道称这些受体在胚胎外膜中表达(Kumar、Lohrentz、Gahr 和 Groothuis,2019),表明通过这些膜产生间接影响,而不是 BPA 对胚胎的直接影响。阿泰等人。报告了在胚胎开始产生自身激素之前,AR 和 ER mRNA 在胚胎外膜 (EM) 上表达的新发现,确定了母体激素对胚胎作用的新底物。

众所周知,最终进入环境的塑料成品以及塑料释放的化学物质会对人类和动物健康产生负面影响。本期特刊深入介绍了塑料中化学物质对健康的许多已知和潜在影响。正在进行的 BPA 和双酚替代品的传奇故事也可以在正在进行的毒理学特刊中进行跟踪,该特刊将继续添加文章:https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/toxicology/special-issue/10DGCJPVNJZ。塑料制造、使用和处置的全球性问题继续受到全球监管机构和消费者团体急需的关注,并结合了新技术。

更新日期:2020-10-16
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