1 INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen is known as the lightest chemical element and potentially one of the greatest energy solutions for achieving better energy economy, cleaner environment, better sustainability and brighter future. In addition, it appears to be a key fuel, a unique energy carrier and an essential commodity to produce other chemicals and fuels.

Worldwide, there have been noteworthy efforts regarding hydrogen energy research and developments (R&Ds). The discovery of hydrogen is dated back to the 15th century. Hydrogen was first artificially produced in gas form by Phillip von Hohenheim, but at that time, he was not aware that a new flammable chemical element was produced. In 1671, Robert Boyle conducted an experiment with different metals via dipping them into acid. Hydrogen gas was produced during the experiment by the reaction called single‐displacement, and he noted the fumes were flammable. When the date showed 1776, the first hydrogen‐related research paper was published by Henry Cavendish, confirming that hydrogen is a distinct element and flammable.1 Today, Cavendish's study is considered a cornerstone for hydrogen‐related studies. One of the very first hydrogen energy related meeting activities was initiated with a milestone‐type conference in Miami, USA, by Professor Nejat Veziroglu in 1974.2 Since then, hydrogen energy has become the subject area of many research activities.

Hydrogen, consisting of one proton and one electron, is the simplest and most abundant element on the Earth.3 However, hydrogen does not exist naturally in gas form. Instead, hydrogen occurs within a compound such as water (H₂O). Therefore, hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source. The distinction between energy carriers and sources is that energy carriers are the medium that transport energy from production to end‐use. In contrast, energy sources are the original resource from which energy carriers can be produced.4 Instead of combustion, the use of hydrogen in a fuel cell to generate power produces only water and heat as byproducts. This feature can be considered as the primary importance of hydrogen within the nature‐friendly energy concept. Hydrogen is appraised as a promising solution as a medium for transportation and storage of energy. However, it is difficult to keep hydrogen in condensed phase due to its low density. Therefore, regardless of the storage method, hydrogen has the lowest calorific value per unit of volume compared to conventional fuels.5 On the other hand, hydrogen‐fueled power systems achieve much higher efficiency than that of conventional fuel‐based power systems. Thus, the problem of low hydrogen storage density is compensated.6

The method of producing hydrogen has a crucial role in achieving cradle‐to‐grave nature‐friendly hydrogen‐based energy applications. Hydrogen can be produced via electrolysis of water or thermal processing of hydrocarbons. Today, more than three‐quarters of industrial hydrogen is generated via natural gas or coal‐based steam methane reforming (SMR) method.7 Fossil fuel‐based hydrogen generation emits 830 million tons of CO₂ annually, which corresponds to 2% of global CO₂ emissions.8 Therefore, more and more research and funds are promoted to generate hydrogen within a more environmentally‐benign manner. Figure 1 shows the annual renewable‐based hydrogen generation ratios from 2010 to 2030. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA),9 0.36 million tons (Mts) of low‐carbon hydrogen production was achieved in 2019. When annual global hydrogen generation is considered (69 Mts/year), it can be realized that clean hydrogen corresponds to around 0.52% of global hydrogen generation. It is targeted to reach 7.92 million tons of annual low‐carbon hydrogen generation by 2030. In this regard, increasing the share of renewable energy resources such as wind, solar, biomass, nuclear, or hydro, in global energy supply breakdown, will play a key role in realizing this target.

Hydrogen produced from natural gas or coal‐based steam reforming method is called gray and black hydrogen, respectively. In some applications, CO₂ occurring from fossil fuel‐based hydrogen production is captured and stored; thus, the CO₂ emission rates are mitigated. This hydrogen is called as blue hydrogen. Due to non‐pollutant or less‐pollutant characteristic, renewable‐based hydrogen production is called as green hydrogen. With the production rate of 3 Mts/year corresponding around 4.35% of the global output, Canada takes place in the top 10 global hydrogen producers.10 Canada's hydrogen is almost 100% fossil fuel‐based. On the other hand, with its large and diversified geographical characteristic, Canada has substantial renewable resources that can be employed to make Canada's hydrogen 100% green. Currently, about 18.9% of primary energy supply in Canada is from renewable.11 The ratio further increases if nuclear power is considered that providing 15% of Canada's electricity.12 In Figure 2, a potential renewable hydrogen pathway for Canada, is illustrated. Canada has a potential to implement this pathway by having all indicated renewable sources. However, policy support is needed to accelerate the economical viability of green hydrogen in Canada.

Hydrogen can greatly be generated from renewable energies by electrochemical or thermochemical processing of water. For the electrochemical process, electricity is needed to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Therefore, low‐carbon electricity from solar, wind, biomass or hydro can be utilized to generate green hydrogen. For the thermochemical‐based water splitting, high temperature heat (500°C‐2000°C) is required.14 For green hydrogen generation, the heat can be provided from concentrated solar or nuclear power plants. In Canada, there are 18 nuclear power plants in operation. Therefore, Canada has significant potential and an upper hand for green hydrogen transition. Since they can provide both electrical and thermal powers, nuclear power plants allow to use of both electrochemical and thermochemical hydrogen production methods such as conventional electrolysis, high temperature electrolysis, 3‐, 4‐, or 5‐ step copper‐chlorine (Cu‐Cl) cycles. Compared to conventional fossil fuel‐based SMR that emits around 1.26 kg CO₂/ kg hydrogen, the ratio can be decreased as low as 0.47 kg CO₂/ kg hydrogen by promoting nuclear based hydrogen generation.5 Canada appears as well‐positioned to respond the growing demand for green hydrogen.

Today, Canada has a hydrogen and fuel cell sector thriving in export markets with its global leaders in the sector such as Ballard Power Systems and Hydrogenics. Canadian hydrogen and fuel cell sector made $207 million profit in 2017 while employing more than 1600 people in Canada.10 Furthermore, Canada takes place in many international organizations focusing on hydrogen such as International Partnership for Hydrogen in the Economy (IPHE), Mission Innovation (MI), the Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM), the Hydrogen Ministerial, and IEA. Currently, the federal government of Canada is working on a comprehensive strategy for hydrogen to make the energy carrier a major component of Canada's net‐zero green‐house emission target by 2050.

In the current study, a comprehensive literature search is conducted for hydrogen‐related research, development, and innovation in Canada over the last 50‐year period. Data and information results are compiled and presented by considering hydrogen‐related research articles, books and book chapters, research projects, patents, master and doctorate theses, and so on. Furthermore, Canadian institutes that have made the most considerable contribution to hydrogen by conducting research studies or sponsoring hydrogen‐related research studies are evaluated.

中文翻译：

---

加拿大氢能相关研究与开发工作的视角

1引言

氢是最轻的化学元素，也是实现更好的能源经济，更清洁的环境，更好的可持续性和更光明的未来的最大能源解决方案之一。此外，它似乎是生产其他化学品和燃料的关键燃料，独特的能源载体和必不可少的商品。

在全球范围内，在氢能研究与开发（R＆D）方面已做出了值得注意的努力。氢的发现可以追溯到15世纪。氢最初是由菲利普·冯·霍恩海姆（Phillip von Hohenheim）人工以气体形式产生的，但当时他还不知道会产生一种新的易燃化学元素。1671年，罗伯特·博伊尔（Robert Boyle）将不同的金属浸入酸中进行了实验。在实验过程中，氢气是通过单位移反应产生的，他指出烟雾是易燃的。当日期显示为1776年时，亨利·卡文迪许（Henry Cavendish）发表了第一篇与氢有关的研究论文，证实了氢是一种独特的元素并且易燃。1个今天，卡文迪许的研究被认为是氢相关研究的基石。1974年，Nejat Veziroglu教授在美国迈阿密举行了具有里程碑意义的会议，这是与氢能相关的首次会议活动之一。2从那时起，氢能已成为许多研究活动的主题。

氢由一个质子和一个电子组成，是地球上最简单最丰富的元素。3但是，氢并不自然以气体形式存在。而是在诸如水（H ₂ O）的化合物中出现氢。因此，氢是一种能量载体，而不是一种能源。能源载体和能源之间的区别在于，能源载体是将能源从生产运输到最终使用的媒介。相反，能源是可以产生能量载体的原始资源。4燃料电池中使用氢来发电，而不是燃烧，仅产生水和热作为副产物。在自然友好型能源概念中，此功能可被视为氢的首要重要性。氢被认为是一种有前途的解决方案，可作为能源运输和存储的媒介。然而，由于氢的密度低，难以将氢保持在冷凝相中。因此，与传统燃料相比，无论采用哪种存储方法，氢的单位体积热量都最低。5另一方面，氢燃料动力系统比常规燃料动力系统具有更高的效率。因此，储氢密度低的问题得到了补偿。6

产生氢气的方法在实现从摇篮到坟墓的自然友好型氢能源应用中至关重要。氢可以通过水的电解或碳氢化合物的热处理来产生。如今，四分之三以上的工业氢气是通过天然气或煤基蒸汽甲烷重整（SMR）方法产生的。7基于化石燃料的氢气生产每年排放8.3亿吨CO ₂，相当于全球CO ₂排放量的2％。8因此，越来越多的研究和资金被提倡以更环保的方式产生氢气。图1显示了基于年度可再生能源，制氢比率从2010年到2030年，据国际能源机构（IEA），9 036万吨低碳制氢（MTS）在2019年实现了当年度全球氢一代考虑到（69 Mts /年），清洁的氢气约占全球氢气产量的0.52％。计划到2030年达到每年792万吨的低碳氢产生量。在这方面，在全球能源供应细分中，将增加风能，太阳能，生物质能，核能或水能等可再生能源的份额在实现此目标中起关键作用。

由天然气或煤制蒸汽重整方法产生的氢气分别称为灰色氢气和黑色氢气。在一些应用中，CO ₂从基于化石燃料的氢气生产存在的被捕获并存储; 因此，降低了CO ₂排放率。该氢称为蓝色氢。由于无污染或低污染的特性，可再生氢制氢称为绿色氢。加拿大的3 Mts /年的生产率约占全球产量的4.35％，在全球制氢商中排名前10位。10加拿大的氢气几乎是100％以化石燃料为基础。另一方面，加拿大因其广阔而多样的地理特征，拥有大量可再生资源，可用于使加拿大的氢100％成为绿色。目前，加拿大约18.9％的一次能源供应来自可再生能源。11如果认为核能提供加拿大15％的电力，该比例将进一步提高。12在图2中，显示了加拿大潜在的可再生氢途径。加拿大有潜力通过采用所有指明的可再生资源来实施这一途径。但是，需要政策支持以加快加拿大绿色氢气的经济生存能力。

氢气可以通过水的电化学或热化学处理从可再生能源中大量产生。对于电化学过程，需要电才能将水分解为氢和氧。因此，可以利用来自太阳能，风能，生物质能或水能的低碳电力来产生绿色氢。对于基于热化学的水分解，需要高温加热（500°C-2000°C）。14为了产生绿色氢气，可以从集中的太阳能或核电厂提供热量。在加拿大，有18个正在运行的核电厂。因此，加拿大在绿色氢过渡方面具有巨大潜力和优势。由于它们既可以提供电力也可以提供火力发电，因此核电站可以使用电化学和热化学制氢方法，例如常规电解，高温电解，三步，四步或五步铜氯（CuCl ）个周期。与传统的基于矿物燃料的SMR排放约1.26 kg CO ₂ / kg氢气相比，通过促进基于核的氢气生成，该比率可以降低至0.47 kg CO ₂ / kg氢气。5加拿大似乎有条件应对绿色氢需求的增长。

如今，加拿大的氢气和燃料电池行业在出口市场上蒸蒸日上，其在该领域的全球领导者如Ballard Power Systems和Hydrogenics。加拿大氢和燃料电池行业在2017年赚了2.07亿加元的利润，同时在加拿大雇用了1600多名员工。10此外，加拿大在许多专注于氢的国际组织中开展活动，例如国际经济氢能伙伴关系（IPHE），任务创新（MI），清洁能源部长级（CEM），氢能部长级和IEA。目前，加拿大联邦政府正在制定一项氢气综合战略，以使能源载体到2050年成为加拿大净零温室气体排放目标的主要组成部分。

在当前的研究中，对过去50年中加拿大与氢相关的研究，开发和创新进行了全面的文献检索。通过考虑与氢有关的研究文章，书籍和书籍章节，研究项目，专利，硕士和博士学位论文等来汇编和呈现数据和信息结果。此外，对通过开展研究或赞助氢相关研究对氢做出了最大贡献的加拿大研究机构进行了评估。