In the last 100 years, climate warming has been affecting the European Alps faster and more severely than globally observed temperature patterns. Temperature changes are known to affect soil properties and microbial community structures, and land-use change in Europe is an expected socio-economic consequence of climate change. However, few studies have simultaneously investigated how land-use and climate-related changes shape microbial (prokaryotic and fungal) communities in this region. Therefore, here we have investigated sites within a Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) area in South-Tyrol (Italian Alps), characterizing soil properties and microbial communities and diversities. We investigated three important land-use types (forests, hay meadows and pastures) at 1500 m above sea level (a.s.l.), as well as an elevational gradient (1000, 1500 and 2000 m a.s.l.) of pastures.

Results showed that land-use did not lead to distinct differences in soil properties, even though the land-uses have been consistent over recent decades (30–160 years). Nevertheless, the meadows sites showed increased soil pH, soil water content, and organic matter content compared with the forest and pasture sites. As a result, the fungal soil microbiome correlated significantly with land-use and fungal diversity increased on the meadow sites, whereas prokaryotic communities were less affected by land-use and did not show significant changes in diversity patterns. Along increasing elevation, the most pronounced changes were a decrease in soil pH, and an increase in organic matter content. The influence of elevation was clearly reflected in the structures of the prokaryotic and fungal communities, with significantly lower diversities and decreased species richness at the highest studied elevation. Indicator taxa for the different land-uses and elevations were established. Russulaceae and Flavobacteriaceae were biomarker families for forests, several Mortierella spp. and Microlunatus sp. were identified as indicator species for meadows and Herpotrichiellaceae spp. and Bacillaceae spp. for pastures. For pastures, increasing elevation led to increased occurrence of Acidobacteria Gp1, Gp2 and Spartobacteria and the fungal genera Hygrocybe and Clavaria, all typical inhabitants of nutrient-poor grasslands.

Changes in soil pH across the elevation gradient and according to land-use were shown to play a major role, but we would like to emphasize the complex interplay between pH, organic matter, temperature, and water content. The increased prokaryotic and/or fungal diversity observed on low-elevated pastures and meadows, respectively is assumed to be not only an association with the changed soil pH but is likely indicative of a disturbed system or a soil site facing repeated disturbances (e.g., temperature, drought, and fertilization).

Within the present study, we were able to show that elevation had a strong effect on prokaryotic and fungal communities whereas changes in land-use mainly affected fungi. Thus, the present study contributes to better predict the response of microorganisms to temperature-related future changes in the Central European Alps and could support decisions in upcoming soil management strategies.

在过去的100年中，气候变暖比全球观测到的温度变化对欧洲阿尔卑斯山的影响更快，更严重。已知温度变化会影响土壤特性和微生物群落结构，欧洲的土地利用变化是气候变化的预期社会经济后果。但是，很少有研究同时调查土地利用和与气候相关的变化如何影响该地区的微生物（原核和真菌）群落。因此，在这里，我们调查了南蒂罗尔（意大利阿尔卑斯山）的长期社会生态研究（LTSER）区域内的地点，以表征土壤性质以及微生物群落和多样性。我们调查了海拔1500 m（asl）上的三种重要的土地利用类型（森林，干草草甸和牧场）以及海拔梯度（1000年，

结果表明，即使最近几十年（30-160年）土地利用一直保持一致，土地利用也没有导致土壤性质的明显差异。尽管如此，与森林和牧场相比，草甸地区的土壤pH，土壤水分和有机质含量增加。结果，真菌土壤微生物组与土地利用显着相关，并且草地上的真菌多样性增加，而原核生物群落受到土地利用的影响较小，并且没有显示出多样性格局的显着变化。随着海拔的升高，最明显的变化是土壤pH值降低和有机质含量增加。海拔的影响清楚地反映在原核和真菌群落的结构中，在研究的最高海拔高度，物种多样性明显降低，物种丰富度下降。建立了针对不同土地用途和海拔的指标分类单元。十字花科和黄杆菌科是森林的生物标记家族，莫氏菌属 和Microlunatus sp。被确定为草甸和Herpotrichiellaceae spp的指示物种。和芽孢杆菌属。牧场 对于牧场而言，海拔升高导致酸性细菌Gp1，Gp2和Spartobacteria以及真菌属Hygrocybe和Clavaria的发生增加，这些都是营养不良草原的典型居民。

土壤pH在海拔梯度上的变化以及根据土地用途的变化显示出主要作用，但我们想强调pH，有机物，温度和水分之间的复杂相互作用。分别在低海拔的牧场和草地上观察到的原核生物和/或真菌多样性的增加不仅被认为与土壤pH值的变化有关，而且还可能表明系统受到干扰或土壤站点面临反复干扰（例如温度） ，干旱和施肥）。

在目前的研究中，我们能够证明海拔升高对原核和真菌群落有很强的影响，而土地利用的变化主要影响真菌。因此，本研究有助于更好地预测微生物对中欧阿尔卑斯山与温度相关的未来变化的响应，并且可以支持即将到来的土壤管理策略中的决策。