Humans have always been in contact with natural airborne particles from many sources including biologic particulate matter (PM) which can exhibit allergenic properties. With industrialization, anthropogenic and combustion-derived particles have become a major fraction. Currently, an ever-growing number of diverse and innovative materials containing engineered nanoparticles (NPs) are being developed with great expectations in technology and medicine. Nanomaterials have entered everyday products including cosmetics, textiles, electronics, sports equipment, as well as food, and food packaging. As part of natural evolution humans have adapted to the exposure to particulate matter, aiming to protect the individual's integrity and health. At the respiratory barrier, complications can arise, when allergic sensitization and pulmonary diseases occur in response to particle exposure. Particulate matter in the form of plant pollen, dust mites feces, animal dander, but also aerosols arising from industrial processes in occupational settings including diverse mixtures thereof can exert such effects. This review article gives an overview of the allergic immune response and addresses specifically the mechanisms of particulates in the context of allergic sensitization, effector function and therapy. In regard of the first theme (i), an overview on exposure to particulates and the functionalities of the relevant immune cells involved in allergic sensitization as well as their interactions in innate and adaptive responses are described. As relevant for human disease, we aim to outline (ii) the potential effector mechanisms that lead to the aggravation of an ongoing immune deviation (such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, etc.) by inhaled particulates, including NPs. Even though adverse effects can be exerted by (nano)particles, leading to allergic sensitization, and the exacerbation of allergic symptoms, promising potential has been shown for their use in (iii) therapeutic approaches of allergic disease, for example as adjuvants. Hence, allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is introduced and the role of adjuvants such as alum as well as the current understanding of their mechanisms of action is reviewed. Finally, future prospects of nanomedicines in allergy treatment are described, which involve modern platform technologies combining immunomodulatory effects at several (immuno-)functional levels.

人类一直与来自许多来源的天然空气传播颗粒接触，包括可能表现出过敏特性的生物颗粒物 (PM)。随着工业化，人为和燃烧产生的颗粒已成为主要部分。目前，越来越多的包含工程纳米粒子（NP）的多样化和创新材料正在开发中，在技术和医学方面寄予厚望。纳米材料已进入日常用品，包括化妆品、纺织品、电子产品、运动器材以及食品和食品包装。作为自然进化的一部分，人类已经适应了接触颗粒物，旨在保护个人的完整性和健康。在呼吸屏障处，可能会出现并发症，当过敏性致敏和肺部疾病因颗粒暴露而发生时。植物花粉、尘螨粪便、动物皮屑形式的颗粒物，以及职业环境中工业过程产生的气溶胶，包括它们的各种混合物，都可以发挥这种作用。这篇综述文章概述了过敏性免疫反应，并专门讨论了过敏性致敏、效应器功能和治疗背景下的微粒机制。关于第一个主题 (i)，概述了暴露于微粒和参与过敏致敏的相关免疫细胞的功能，以及它们在先天和适应性反应中的相互作用。与人类疾病相关，我们的目标是概述 (ii) 潜在的效应机制，这些机制会导致吸入颗粒物（包括 NPs）加剧正在进行的免疫偏差（如哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺病等）。尽管（纳米）颗粒可以产生副作用，导致过敏性致敏和过敏症状恶化，但它们在 (iii) 过敏性疾病的治疗方法中的应用（例如作为佐剂）显示出有希望的潜力。因此，介绍了过敏原特异性免疫疗法 (AIT)，并回顾了明矾等佐剂的作用以及目前对其作用机制的理解。最后，描述了纳米药物在过敏治疗中的未来前景，