Zoraptera is one of the most enigmatic and least understood orders in insects. Based on a wide taxon sampling from all continents where the group is known, we applied a phylogenetic approach using multiple DNA sequences to elucidate species‐level relationships. The resulting phylogeny shows that Zoraptera is divided into three major clades, and that two comprise species distributed on different continents. The monophyly of these clades is at least partly supported by shared derived morphological features. The divergence age estimation and ancestral distribution area reconstruction suggest an ancient origin and early radiation initiated in the Permian. Plate tectonics theory suggests that the present distribution of Zoraptera was mainly established by vicariance, rather than dispersal. The three major clades probably originated on the Pangaea supercontinent, or alternatively on the linked Gondwana and Laurasia supercontinents. Their ancient origin explains previously found conspicuous interspecific variation of the genital apparatus, sperm structure and mating behaviour, in striking contrast to a highly conserved general body morphology. We compiled data of available reproductive features and reconstructed the character evolution. Our analyses revealed repeated acquisitions and/or losses of a hyperelongated intromittent organ, mating hooks and tergal protuberances.

中文翻译：

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Zoraptera的进化

Zoraptera 是昆虫中最神秘、最不为人知的目之一。基于来自该群体已知的所有大陆的广泛分类群抽样，我们应用了使用多个 DNA 序列的系统发育方法来阐明物种水平的关系。由此产生的系统发育表明 Zoraptera 分为三个主要分支，其中两个包括分布在不同大陆的物种。这些进化枝的单一性至少部分由共享的衍生形态特征支持。分歧年龄估计和祖先分布区重建表明，在二叠纪开始的古老起源和早期辐射。板块构造理论表明，佐翅目目前的分布主要是通过替代而不是分散建立的。这三个主要进化枝可能起源于盘古超大陆，或者起源于相连的冈瓦纳大陆和劳亚大陆超大陆。它们的古老起源解释了先前发现的生殖器、精子结构和交配行为的显着种间变异，与高度保守的一般身体形态形成鲜明对比。我们汇编了可用生殖特征的数据并重建了角色进化。我们的分析揭示了超长插入器官、交配钩和 tergal 突起的重复获得和/或损失。与高度保守的一般身体形态形成鲜明对比。我们汇编了可用生殖特征的数据并重建了角色进化。我们的分析揭示了超长插入器官、交配钩和 tergal 突起的重复获得和/或损失。与高度保守的一般身体形态形成鲜明对比。我们汇编了可用生殖特征的数据并重建了角色进化。我们的分析揭示了超长插入器官、交配钩和 tergal 突起的重复获得和/或损失。