Increasing global temperatures and a growing world population create the need to develop crop varieties that provide higher yields in warmer climates. There is growing interest in expanding quinoa cultivation, because of the ability of quinoa to produce nutritious grain in poor soils, with little water and at high salinity. The main limitation to expanding quinoa cultivation, however, is the susceptibility of quinoa to temperatures above approximately 32°C. This study investigates the phenotypes, genes and mechanisms that may affect quinoa seed yield at high temperatures. Using a differential heating system where only roots or only shoots were heated, quinoa yield losses were attributed to shoot heating. Plants with heated shoots lost 60–85% yield as compared with control plants. Yield losses were the result of lower fruit production, which lowered the number of seeds produced per plant. Furthermore, plants with heated shoots had delayed maturity and greater non‐reproductive shoot biomass, whereas plants with both heated roots and heated shoots produced higher yields from the panicles that had escaped the heat, compared with the control. This suggests that quinoa uses a type of avoidance strategy to survive heat. Gene expression analysis identified transcription factors differentially expressed in plants with heated shoots and low yield that had been previously associated with flower development and flower opening. Interestingly, in plants with heated shoots, flowers stayed closed during the day while the control flowers were open. Although a closed flower may protect the floral structures, this could also cause yield losses by limiting pollen dispersal, which is necessary to produce fruit in the mostly female flowers of quinoa.

中文翻译：

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加热藜麦芽会抑制果实产量并延迟成熟，从而导致产量损失。

全球气温升高和世界人口不断增长，需要开发在温暖气候下提供更高产量的作物品种。人们对扩大藜麦种植越来越感兴趣，因为藜麦能够在缺水、高盐度的贫瘠土壤中生产营养丰富的谷物。然而，扩大藜麦种植的主要限制是藜麦对高于约 32°C 的温度很敏感。这项研究调查了高温下可能影响藜麦种子产量的表型、基因和机制。使用仅加热根部或仅加热芽的差异加热系统，藜麦产量损失归因于芽加热。与对照植物相比，带有加热芽的植物产量损失了 60-85%。产量损失是由于水果产量下降造成的，从而减少了每株植物产生的种子数量。此外，与对照相比，具有加热芽的植物具有延迟的成熟度和更大的非繁殖芽生物量，而具有加热根和加热芽的植物从逃离热量的圆锥花序中获得更高的产量。这表明藜麦使用一种回避策略来抵御高温。基因表达分析确定了在热芽和低产量植物中差异表达的转录因子，这些转录因子先前被认为与花发育和花开放相关。有趣的是，在具有加热芽的植物中，白天花朵保持关闭状态，而对照花朵则开放。虽然闭合的花可以保护花结构，但这也可能通过限制花粉传播而导致产量损失，而花粉传播是藜麦大部分雌花结果所必需的。