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Maternal effects on offspring growth indicate post-weaning juvenile dependence in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus).
Frontiers in Zoology ( IF 2.8 ) Pub Date : 2020-01-07 , DOI: 10.1186/s12983-019-0343-8
Liran Samuni 1, 2, 3 , Patrick Tkaczynski 1 , Tobias Deschner 1 , Therese Löhrrich 4, 5 , Roman M Wittig 1, 2 , Catherine Crockford 1, 2
Affiliation  

Background In animals with altricial offspring, most growth occurs after birth and may be optimized by post-natal maternal care. Maternal effects on growth may be influenced by individual characteristics of the mothers, such as social status, individual investment strategies and the length of association with offspring. The prolonged juvenile dependence seen in humans is a distinctive life history adaptation, which may have evolved to facilitate sustained somatic and brain growth.In chimpanzees, offspring are typically weaned at approximately 4 years old, yet immature individuals continue to associate with their mothers for up to 10 years beyond weaning. Whether this lengthy association or the individual characteristics of mothers influences growth patterns in this species is not clear.The relationship between urinary creatinine and specific gravity is an established non-invasive measure of muscle mass in humans and chimpanzees. We analysed the urinary creatinine and specific gravity of 1318 urine samples from 70 wild chimpanzees from the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast aged 4 to 15 years. Results We showed a clear increase in urinary creatinine levels with age in both males and females, replicating established growth curves in this species and reaffirming this measure as a reliable proxy for lean body mass. Comparing those who experience maternal loss (orphans) with non-orphan chimpanzees, maternal presence beyond weaning age and into late juvenility positively influenced offspring muscle mass throughout ontogeny such that orphans had significantly less muscle mass than age-matched non-orphans. In age-matched offspring with mothers, those with high-ranking mothers had greater muscle mass. Accounting for variation in muscle mass attributable to maternal presence, we found no effect of maternal investment (length of inter birth interval, from own birth to birth of following sibling) on offspring muscle mass. Conclusion Chimpanzee mothers have an extended and multi-faceted influence on offspring phenotypes. Our results suggest that maternal investment extends beyond lactation and into early adulthood and has clear benefits to offspring physical development. Therefore, prolonged juvenile dependence, although unique in its form in human societies, may be a trait with deeper evolutionary origins.

中文翻译:

母体对后代生长的影响表明黑猩猩(Pan troglodytes verus)断奶后的青少年依赖性。

背景 在具有高龄后代的动物中,大多数生长发生在出生后,并且可以通过产后母体护理进行优化。母亲对成长的影响可能受到母亲的个人特征的影响,例如社会地位、个人投资策略和与后代交往的时间长短。在人类中看到的长期青少年依赖是一种独特的生活史适应,它可能已经进化为促进持续的躯体和大脑生长。在黑猩猩中,后代通常在大约 4 岁时断奶,但未成熟的个体继续与他们的母亲联系直到到断奶后 10 年。这种长期的联系或母亲的个体特征是否会影响该物种的生长模式尚不清楚。尿肌酐和比重之间的关系是人类和黑猩猩肌肉质量的既定非侵入性测量方法。我们分析了来自象牙海岸 Taï 森林的 70 只 4 至 15 岁野生黑猩猩的 1318 份尿样的尿肌酐和比重。结果 我们发现随着年龄的增长,男性和女性的尿肌酐水平明显增加,复制了该物种的既定生长曲线,并重申该测量值是衡量瘦体重的可靠指标。将那些经历过母性丧失(孤儿)的黑猩猩与非孤儿黑猩猩进行比较,母体在断奶年龄后到幼年晚期的存在对整个个体发育过程中的后代肌肉质量有积极影响,因此孤儿的肌肉质量明显低于年龄匹配的非孤儿。在与母亲年龄匹配的后代中,那些母亲地位高的人肌肉质量更大。考虑到母体存在导致的肌肉质量变化,我们发现母体投资(出生间隔的长度,从自己出生到下一个兄弟姐妹的出生)对后代肌肉质量没有影响。结论 黑猩猩母亲对后代表型具有广泛和多方面的影响。我们的研究结果表明,母亲的投资超越了哺乳期,一直延伸到成年早期,并且对后代的身体发育有明显的好处。因此,长期的青少年依赖,虽然在人类社会中以独特的形式存在,但可能是具有更深进化起源的特征。我们发现母体投资(出生间隔的长度,从自己出生到下一个兄弟姐妹的出生)对后代肌肉质量没有影响。结论 黑猩猩母亲对后代表型具有广泛和多方面的影响。我们的研究结果表明,母亲的投资超越了哺乳期,一直延伸到成年早期,并且对后代的身体发育有明显的好处。因此,长期的青少年依赖,虽然在人类社会中以独特的形式存在,但可能是具有更深进化起源的特征。我们发现母体投资(出生间隔的长度,从自己出生到下一个兄弟姐妹的出生)对后代肌肉质量没有影响。结论 黑猩猩母亲对后代表型具有广泛和多方面的影响。我们的研究结果表明,母亲的投资超越了哺乳期,一直延伸到成年早期,并且对后代的身体发育有明显的好处。因此,长期的青少年依赖,虽然在人类社会中以独特的形式存在,但可能是具有更深进化起源的特征。我们的研究结果表明,母亲的投资超越了哺乳期,一直延伸到成年早期,并且对后代的身体发育有明显的好处。因此,长期的青少年依赖,虽然在人类社会中以独特的形式存在,但可能是具有更深进化起源的特征。我们的研究结果表明,母亲的投资超越了哺乳期,一直延伸到成年早期,并且对后代的身体发育有明显的好处。因此,长期的青少年依赖,虽然在人类社会中以独特的形式存在,但可能是具有更深进化起源的特征。
更新日期:2020-04-22
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