When considering how particular features of an organism develop, it is often intuitive to turn to examples of phylogenetic adaptation, or evolutionary change over time. The rapid darkening of peppered moths of industrial-era London provide a compelling case, as light-colored moths became easier for predators to spot in a city increasingly blackened by soot (Cook, 2003). Similarly, it is intuitive that the human brain evolved to allow for functions that would have benefited the survival of our ancestors, such as the ability to see and coordinate movement. What is perhaps less obvious, is how the brain carries out functions that are too new to have been selected for during human evolution, such as precise mathematics and language. In their article “Neuroemergentism: A framework for studying cognition and the brain,” Hernandez et al. (in press) review evidence showing that cognitive functions and their underlying neural bases can be best understood by considering both phylogenetic evolution of the brain, as well as ontogenetic development over an individual's lifespan to account for the impact of experience. The authors consider the theories of Neuronal Recycling, Neural Reuse, and Language as Shaped by the Brain, and explain that skills such as reading and numerical processing are made possible by recruiting existing, older neural structures for new functions. They further argue that a comprehensive theory should include consideration of developmental changes over time, and introduce Neuroemergentism as a potential unifying account that seeks to explain how pre-existing elements shaped through evolution are repurposed to meet an organism's developmental needs. In its conception, Neuroemergentism aims to provide a framework for the study of cognition and the brain. Going forward, the theory would benefit from greater specificity in order to transition from an explanatory account to a framework that generates testable and falsifiable predictions. As a first step towards this goal, we discuss three potential topics for which a Neuroemergentist prism could provide constructive insights: Bilingualism, language acquisition, and language attrition. We consider these three areas in light of data that are already compatible with Neuroemergentism and that could be developed further within its framework. For bilingualism, there is already substantial evidence that the effects of using multiple languages vary across the lifespan (Bialystok, Martin, & Viswanathan, 2005). For example, differences in executive function between monolinguals and bilinguals have been well documented among young children (e.g., Bialystok, 2001) and older adults (e.g., Bialystok, Craik, & Luk, 2008), but the effects become more tenuous among younger adults (e.g., Salvatierra & Rosselli, 2011). Bialystok et al. (2005) trace this development and propose that effects of bilingualism are less prominent among young adults because they are operating at peak efficiency, leaving little room for variability. Taking a Neuroemergentist approach could complement this work by systematically considering the neurological bases and changes associated with the behavioral data. For instance, increased white matter among bilinguals has been documented for both young children (Mohades et al., 2012) and older adults (Luk, Bialystok, Craik, & Grady, 2011), suggesting that enhanced cognitive abilities may result from better and more distributed connectivity (see Mount & Monje, 2017 for a discussion of experience-dependent myelination). Grey matter density has also been shown to increase with bilingual experience, and is correlated with both age of acquisition and language proficiency (Mechelli et al., 2004). Methodical examinations of change across

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Neuroemergentism：在个体发育和系统发育的交叉点

在考虑生物体的特定特征如何发展时，通常会很直观地转向系统发育适应或随时间进化变化的例子。工业时代伦敦的胡椒飞蛾迅速变黑提供了一个引人注目的案例，因为在一个被烟灰越来越黑的城市中，浅色飞蛾更容易被掠食者发现（Cook，2003）。同样，人类大脑进化到允许有利于我们祖先生存的功能，例如观察和协调运动的能力，这是很直观的。或许不太明显的是，大脑如何执行在人类进化过程中太新而无法选择的功能，例如精确的数学和语言。Hernandez 等人在他们的文章“Neuroemergentism：研究认知和大脑的框架”中。（出版中）审查证据表明，通过考虑大脑的系统发育进化以及个体生命周期内的个体发育，可以最好地理解认知功能及其潜在的神经基础，以解释经验的影响。作者考虑了神经元循环、神经重用和由大脑塑造的语言的理论，并解释说，通过为新功能招募现有的旧神经结构，可以使阅读和数字处理等技能成为可能。他们进一步认为，综合理论应包括对随着时间的发展变化的考虑，并引入神经突现主义作为一种潜在的统一解释，试图解释通过进化形成的预先存在的元素如何重新利用以满足生物体的发展需求。在其概念中，Neuroemergentism 旨在为认知和大脑的研究提供一个框架。展望未来，该理论将受益于更大的特异性，以便从解释性解释过渡到生成可测试和可证伪预测的框架。作为实现这一目标的第一步，我们讨论了神经突现主义棱镜可以提供建设性见解的三个潜在主题：双语、语言习得和语言磨损。我们根据已经与 Neuroemergentism 兼容并且可以在其框架内进一步发展的数据来考虑这三个领域。对于双语，已经有大量证据表明使用多种语言的影响在整个生命周期中是不同的（Bialystok、Martin 和 Viswanathan，2005 年）。例如，单语者和双语者之间执行功能的差异在幼儿（例如，Bialystok，2001）和老年人（例如，Bialystok，Craik，& Luk，2008）中已有详细记录，但在年轻人中的影响变得更加微弱（例如，萨尔瓦蒂拉和罗塞利，2011 年）。比亚韦斯托克等。(2005) 追踪这一发展并提出双语的影响在年轻人中不那么突出，因为他们以最高效率运作，几乎没有变化的空间。采取神经应急方法可以通过系统地考虑与行为数据相关的神经基础和变化来补充这项工作。例如，双语者的白质增加对于幼儿（Mohades 等，2012）和老年人（Luk、Bialystok、Craik 和 Grady，2011），表明增强的认知能力可能来自更好和更分散的连接（参见 Mount & Monje，2017 年关于经验依赖性髓鞘形成的讨论）。灰质密度也被证明会随着双语经验而增加，并且与习得年龄和语言能力相关（Mechelli 等，2004）。有条不紊地检查整个变化