The haplodiploid sex determining mechanism in Hymenoptera (males are haploid, females are diploid) has played an important role in the evolution of this insect order. In Hymenoptera sex is usually determined by a single locus, heterozygotes are female and hemizygotes are male. Under inbreeding, homozygous diploid and sterile males occur which form a genetic burden for a population. We review life history and genetical traits that may overcome the disadvantages of single locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD). Behavioural adaptations to avoid matings between relatives include active dispersal from natal patches and mating preferences for non-relatives. In non-social species, temporal and spatial segregation of male and female offspring reduces the burden of sl-CSD. In social species, diploid males are produced at the expense of workers and female reproductives. In some social species, diploid males and diploid male producing queens are killed by workers. Diploid male production may have played a role in the evolution or maintenance of polygyny (multiple queens) and polyandry (multiple mating). Some forms of thelytoky (parthenogenetic female production) increase homozygosity and are therefore incompatible with sl-CSD. We discuss a number of hypothetical adaptations to sl-CSD which should be considered in future studies of this insect order.

中文翻译：

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膜翅目单基因座互补性别决定：“非智能”设计？

膜翅目中的单倍二倍体性别决定机制（雄性为单倍体，雌性为二倍体）在该昆虫目的进化中发挥了重要作用。在膜翅目中，性别通常由单个基因座决定，杂合子是雌性，半合子是雄性。在近亲繁殖中，会出现纯合二倍体和不育雄性，这对种群造成遗传负担。我们回顾了可能克服单基因座互补性别决定（sl-CSD）缺点的生活史和遗传特征。避免亲属之间交配的行为适应包括从出生斑块中主动分散和对非亲属的交配偏好。在非社会物种中，雄性和雌性后代的时间和空间隔离减轻了 sl-CSD 的负担。在社会物种中，二倍体雄性的产生是以工蚁和雌性生殖为代价的。在一些社会物种中，二倍体雄性和二倍体雄性产蚁后会被工蚁杀死。二倍体雄性的产生可能在一夫多妻制（多个皇后）和一妻多夫制（多次交配）的进化或维持中发挥了作用。某些形式的产雌孤雌生殖（孤雌生殖）会增加纯合性，因此与 sl-CSD 不相容。我们讨论了一些对 sl-CSD 的假设适应，在未来对该昆虫的研究中应考虑这些适应。