Decision-support tools (DSTs) are often produced from collaborations between technical experts and stakeholders to address environmental problems and inform decision making. Studies in the past two decades have provided key insights on the use of DSTs and the importance of bidirectional information flows among technical experts and stakeholders – a process that is variously referred to as co-production, participatory modeling, structured decision making, or simply stakeholder participation. Many of these studies have elicited foundational insights for the broad field of water resources management; however, questions remain on approaches for balancing co-production with uncertainty specifically for watershed modeling decision support tools. In this paper, we outline a simple conceptual model that focuses on the DST development process. Then, using watershed modeling case studies found in the literature, we discuss successful outcomes and challenges associated with embedding various forms of co-production into each stage of the conceptual model. We also emphasize the “3 Cs” (i.e., characterization, calculation, communication) of uncertainty and provide evidence-based suggestions for their incorporation in the watershed modeling DST development process. We conclude by presenting a list of best practices derived from current literature for achieving effective and robust watershed modeling decision-support tools.

决策支持工具（DST）通常是由技术专家和利益相关者之间的合作产生的，以解决环境问题并为决策提供信息。过去二十年的研究提供了关于 DST 的使用以及技术专家和利益相关者之间双向信息流重要性的重要见解——这一过程被称为共同生产、参与式建模、结构化决策或简称为利益相关者参与。其中许多研究为水资源管理的广泛领域提供了基础见解；然而，对于平衡联合生产与不确定性的方法仍然存在疑问，特别是对于流域建模决策支持工具。在本文中，我们概述了一个简单的概念模型，重点关注 DST 开发过程。然后，利用文献中发现的分水岭建模案例研究，我们讨论了将各种形式的联合生产嵌入到概念模型的每个阶段相关的成功结果和挑战。我们还强调不确定性的“3C”（即表征、计算、沟通），并为将其纳入流域建模 DST 开发过程提供基于证据的建议。最后，我们列出了从当前文献中得出的最佳实践列表，以实现有效且强大的分水岭建模决策支持工具。