Abstract Fortified kraals are predator-proof enclosures designed to protect livestock at night. Globally, they show great promise in reducing depredation by carnivores, thus promoting co-existence with people. Their efficacy depends on effectiveness, durability, regular use, owner satisfaction, cost-efficiency, and design. We monitored 32 fortified kraals for 18 months in a high conflict area in northern Botswana (n = 427 kraal months) where lions (Panthera leo) frequently kill cattle. Monthly kraal use was 60% and was significantly influenced by kraal type, age, and shape. When used and maintained, kraals stopped livestock depredation. Due to poor maintenance, however, kraal age had a significant, negative influence on kraal use and effectiveness, compromising sustainability and cost-effectiveness. Fortified kraals built by a non-governmental organisation cost US$1322.36 per unit (n = 20) and mitigated a mean annual loss of $187.32. This suggests cost-recuperation after 7.0 years, or 2.3 times longer than observed kraal lifetime. Conversely, owner-built replicates cost $579.90 per unit (n = 4), recuperating investment after 3.1 years. Owner satisfaction was significantly higher for fortified kraals when compared with traditional kraals. However, owners of fortified kraals did not kraal their cattle more frequently than owners of traditional kraals. Regionally, the mean annual kraaling rate for 29 GPS-monitored cattle herds (n = 3360 nights) was 40%, leaving cattle vulnerable to depredation, and highlighting the importance of promoting vigilant herding together with kraaling to prevent losses. This combination could reduce regional livestock losses by 80%, or >$38,000 annually, however, kraal fortification alone does not provide a blanket solution to carnivore conflicts in Africa's agro-pastoral landscapes.

中文翻译：

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大小、形状和维护问题：对全球食肉动物冲突缓解策略的批判性评估——博茨瓦纳北部的牲畜保护牧场

摘要 Fortified kraals 是防捕食者的围栏，旨在保护夜间牲畜。在全球范围内，它们在减少食肉动物的掠夺方面显示出巨大的希望，从而促进与人类的共存。它们的功效取决于有效性、耐用性、定期使用、业主满意度、成本效益和设计。我们在博茨瓦纳北部的一个高冲突地区（n = 427 kraal 月）监测了 32 个强化的 kraals，在那里狮子（Panthera leo）经常杀死牛。每月牛栏使用率为 60%，并受牛栏类型、年龄和形状的显着影响。当使用和维护时，kraals 停止了对牲畜的掠夺。然而，由于维护不善，牧场年龄对牧场的使用和有效性产生了显着的负面影响，影响了可持续性和成本效益。由非政府组织建造的强化 kraals 每单位成本为 1322.36 美元（n = 20），平均每年减少的损失为 187.32 美元。这表明 7.0 年后成本恢复，或比观察到的 kraal 寿命长 2.3 倍。相反，自建复制品每单位成本为 579.90 美元（n = 4），3.1 年后收回投资。与传统的 kraals 相比，强化 kraals 的所有者满意度显着更高。然而，强化牛栏的所有者并没有比传统牛栏的所有者更频繁地对牛进行牛栏。从区域来看，29 个 GPS 监控的牛群（n = 3360 晚）的年平均放牧率为 40%，使牛容易遭受掠夺，并强调了与放牧一起促进警惕放牧以防止损失的重要性。