Importance  The negative effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on lifelong functioning are pronounced, with some evidence suggesting that these effects are mediated by changes in brain development. To our knowledge, no research has investigated whether parenting might buffer these negative effects.

Objective  To establish whether positive parenting behaviors moderate the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on brain development and adaptive functioning in adolescents.

Design, Setting, and Participants  In this longitudinal study of adolescents from schools in Melbourne, Australia, data were collected at 3 assessments between 2004 and 2012. Data were analyzed between August 2016 and April 2017.

Exposures  Both family (parental income-to-needs, occupation, and education level) and neighborhood measures of socioeconomic disadvantage were assessed. Positive maternal parenting behaviors were observed during interactions in early adolescence.

Main Outcomes and Measures  Structural magnetic resonance imaging scans at 3 times (early, middle, and late adolescence) from ages 11 to 20 years. Global and academic functioning was assessed during late adolescence. We used linear mixed models to examine the effect of family and neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage as well as the moderating effect of positive parenting on adolescent brain development. We used mediation models to examine whether brain developmental trajectories predicted functional outcomes during late adolescence.

Results  Of the included 166 adolescents, 86 (51.8%) were male. We found that neighborhood, but not family, socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with altered brain development from early (mean [SD] age, 12.79 [0.425] years) to late (mean [SD] age, 19.08 [0.460] years) adolescence, predominantly in the temporal lobes (temporal cortex: random field theory corrected; left amygdala: B, −0.237; P < .001; right amygdala: B, −0.209; P = .008). Additionally, positive parenting moderated the effects of neighborhood disadvantage on the development of dorsal frontal and lateral orbitofrontal cortices as well as the effects of family disadvantage on the development of the amygdala (occupation: B, 0.382; P = .004; income-to-needs: B, 27.741; P = .004), with some male-specific findings. The pattern of dorsal frontal cortical development in males from disadvantaged neighborhoods exposed to low maternal positivity predicted increased rates of school noncompletion (indirect effect, −0.018; SE, 0.01; 95% CI, −0.053 to −0.001).

Conclusions and Relevance  Our findings highlight the importance of neighborhood disadvantage in influencing brain developmental trajectories. Further, to our knowledge, we present the first evidence that positive maternal parenting might ameliorate the negative effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on frontal lobe development (with implications for functioning) during adolescence. Results have relevance for designing interventions for children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds.

重要性  社会经济劣势对终生功能的负面影响是显而易见的，一些证据表明这些影响是由大脑发育的变化所介导的。据我们所知，没有研究调查过育儿是否可以缓解这些负面影响。

目的  确定积极的父母行为是否能减轻社会经济劣势对青少年大脑发育和适应功能的影响。

设计，环境和参与者  在这项对来自澳大利亚墨尔本的学校的青少年进行的纵向研究中，收集了2004年至2012年的3项评估数据。分析了2016年8月至2017年4月的数据。

暴露  评估了家庭（父母的收入需求，职业和教育水平）和邻里社会经济劣势的衡量指标。在青春期早期的互动过程中，观察到了积极的产妇养育行为。

主要结果和措施  从11岁到20岁，进行3次结构性磁共振成像扫描（青春期早期，中期和晚期）。在青春期后期评估整体和学术功能。我们使用线性混合模型来检验家庭和邻里社会经济劣势的影响以及积极育儿对青少年大脑发育的调节作用。我们使用中介模型来检查大脑发育轨迹是否可以预测青春期后期的功能结局。

结果  在166名青少年中，男性为86名（51.8％）。我们发现，从青春期早期（平均[SD]年龄为12.79 [0.425]岁）到晚期晚期（平均[SD]年龄为19.08 [0.460]岁），邻里社会经济劣势与大脑发育的改变有关在颞叶（颞皮层：随机场理论得到纠正;杏仁核：B，-0.237; P  <.001;杏仁核：B，-0.209; P  = .008 ）。此外，积极的育儿减轻了邻里不利对额叶正面和外侧眶额皮质发育的影响，以及家庭不利对杏仁核发育的影响（职业：B，0.382；P  = .004；收入对需求：B，27.741；P = .004），并且有一些男性特定的发现。来自处于低位母体阳性的弱势社区的男性背额皮质发育模式预测学校未完成率上升（间接影响，-0.018； SE，0.01； 95％CI，-0.053至-0.001）。

结论与相关性  我们的研究结果突显了邻里不利因素在影响大脑发育轨迹中的重要性。此外，据我们所知，我们提供了第一个证据，表明积极的母亲育儿可能会改善青春期期间社会经济不利条件对额叶发育（对功能的影响）的负面影响。研究结果对于为社会经济处于不利地位的背景的儿童设计干预措施具有重要意义。